NCERT Class 9 History

NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 1: French Revolution

French Revolution – Introduction

• End to monarchy in France & announcement of Declaration of Rights of Man – ideas of equality, freedom and liberty
  
• 1774 – Louis XVI of Bourbon family ascended to throne (20 years old) & married to Marie Antoinette
  
• Inherited empty treasure
  
• Drained financial resources
  
• High cost to maintain immense palace of Versailles
  
• Helped 13 American colonies gain independence from Britain
  
• War added debt – about 2 billion livres (French currency)
  
• Lenders to govt. charged 10% interest rate – expense of govt. increased
  

Image of French Revolution

Image of French Revolution

• Peasants – 90% population, very less land
  
• Nobles, Church & Rich – owned 60% land
  
• Clergy & Nobility – enjoyed privileges by births
  
• Only 3^rd Estate – to pay taxes
  
• Nobles – feudal dues from peasants (was obliged to work in his house and fields)
  
• Church extracted tithe – tax 1/10^th of agricultural produce
  
• Direct tax known as taille
  
• 14 July 1789 – king ordered troops to move into city; people formed militia and broke in govt. buildings in search of arms & marched till Bastille (fortress prison). Bastille was demolished & fragments sold in market as souvenir of destruction.
  
• Population increased from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. Production could not meet the demand. Rich & poor gap widened. People protested against price rise of bread – lead to subsistence crisis (food riots, scarcity of grains, higher deaths, increased prices and weaker bodies)
  

Growing Middle Class – New Wave

• Peasants and workers lacked idea to bring social change
  
• 18^th century saw emergence of social groups (middle class) – expansion of trade, professionals like lawyers and administrative officials – who were educated
  
• Belief – no group should be privileged by birth but by merit by John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau
  
• Locke wrote “Two Treaties of Government” – he refuted divine and absolute right of monarch
  
• Rousseau – social contract between people and representatives
  
• Montesquieu – wrote “The Spirit of the Laws” – division of power between judiciary, executive and legislative
  
• Ideas were discussed in salons and coffee-houses & by books and newspapers
  

Timeline

• 1774: Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within society of the Old Regime.
  
• 1789: Convocation of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, and peasant revolts in the countryside.
  
• 1791: A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all human beings.
  
• 1792-93: France becomes a republic, the king is beheaded. Overthrow of the Jacobin republic, a Directory rules France.
  
• 1804: Napoleon becomes emperor of France, annexes large parts of Europe.
  
• 1815: Napoleon defeated at Waterloo.
  

Outbreak of Revolution

• Old Regime – taxes imposed to be decided by meeting of Estate General (had representatives from three estates)
  
• Monarch could decide when the meeting was called – last in 1614, next on 5^th May 1789 for new tax proposal
  
• 1^st estate – 300 representative
  
• 2^nd estate – 300 representative
  
• 3^rd estate – 600 representative (stand at back)
  
• Who were denied entry to assembly? Peasants, artisans and women – demands were listed in 40,000 letters
  
• Till now – 1 vote for 1 estate
  
• Now demand – 1 vote for 1 member (as under social contract) – rejected by kings & members of 3^rd estate walked out in protest
  
• On 20th June – they gathered in ground of Versailles to declare National Assembly & draft constitution to limit powers of monarch (were led by Mirabeau – born in noble family but was convinced with need to do away with feudal privilege & Abbe Sieyes – originally a priest wrote pamphlet “What is Third Estate?”)
  
• Simultaneously in remaining France,
  
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• 
  
• 14^th July – Bastille was destroyed
  
• Rumors that lords of manor had hired brigands to destroy ripe crops – peasants seized hoes and attacked chateaux (residence of nobleman)
  
• 4^th Aug 1789 – Assembly abolished feudal system of obligations and taxes, no privilege to clergy, tithe was abolished & land owned by Church was confiscated
  
• Constitutional Monarchy
  
• Limited powers to monarch
  
• Powers to make laws by National Assembly (indirectly elected)
  

Image of Judiciary, Executive and Legislature

Image of Judiciary, Executive And Legislature

Who Could Vote?

• Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a laborer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote.
  
• To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers
  
• The revolutionary journalist Jean-Paul Marat commented in his newspaper L’Ami du peuple (Friends of people) – explained how wealth influence laws
  
• The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.
  

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

• Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
  
• The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
  
• The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
  
• Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
  
• The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
  
• Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
  
• No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.
  
• Every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
  
• For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
  
• Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.
  

Political Symbols

• Broken chain – act of becoming free
  
• Bundle of rods – strength lies in unity
  
• Eye with triangle radiating light – rays of sun drive away clouds of ignorance
  
• Sceptre – symbol of royal power
  
• Snake biting its tail to form ring: ring has no beginning or end (symbol of eternity)
  
• Blue-white-red: national colors of France
  
• Red Phrygian Cap: cap worn by slaves on becoming free
  
• Winged woman: Personification of law
  
• Law Tablet: Law is same for all and all are equal before law
  

Turning to Republic

• Louis XVI signed secret negotiations with Prussia
  
• But in 1792, National Assembly raised war against Prussia and Austria – many people joined army
  
• Patriotic songs they sang was the Marseillaise, composed by the poet Roget de L’Isle. It was sung for the first time by volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris and so got its name. Marseillaise is now national anthem of France.
  
• Losses and economic difficulties cropped in
  
• Men were at fronts and women were earning living and looking after families
  
• Many clubs were formed – major was Jacobins (after St. Jacob in Paris)
  
• Jacobins - included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers with leader - Maximilian Robespierre – they wore long striped trousers which was different from knee breeches of fashionable section – they were called as sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without knee breeches’ along with red cap (liberty)
  
• Jacobins along with Parisians stormed Palace of Tuileries & held king as hostage for many hours.
  
• Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held. From now on all men of 21 years and above, despite of wealth, got the right to vote.
  
• The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic (people elect government and there is no hereditary monarchy).
  
• Louis XVI was sentenced to death on charge of treason on 21 January 1793 - executed publicly at Place de la Concorde. Same happened with Queen Marie Antoinette shortly.
  

Robespierre – Reign of Terror

1793-1794 – severe control and punishment – all enemies of republic (ex-nobles or clergy) were arrested, imprisoned and tried. If found guilty were guillotined
The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded & named after Dr. Guillotin who invented it.

• Maximum ceiling on wages and prices
  
• Meat and bread was rationed
  
• Expensive white wheat was forbidden
  
• All citizens were required to eat the pain d’égalité (equality bread), a loaf made of wholewheat
  
• Rather than traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men and women were Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen)
  
• Churches were shut & their buildings converted to barracks
  

Even his supporters demanded moderation – he was sent to court in 1794 & guillotined

Directory Rules France

• After Jacobian government fell, wealthier middle class seized power
  
• New constitution – denied vote to non-propertied section
  
• Provided 2 elected legislative councils & appointed Directory (executive of 5 members) to safeguard concentration of power in one hand as under Jacobins
  
• But directors clashed with Legislative council who dismissed them – this led to military dictator – Napoleon Bonaparte
  

Women & Entry

• Most women had no access to education or job training
  
• Only wealthier class could study in convent and later marriage could be arranged
  
• Wages of women were lower than men
  
• Women started political clubs to raise voice with 60 such clubs in various cities
  
• Most famous club - The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women
  
• Disappointed that Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens
  
• Demands – right to vote, to be elected, hold political office and get representation in government
  
• During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities but it continued
  
• Women got right to vote in France in 1946 (result of international suffrage movement)
  
• Olympe de Gouges – politically active women in revolutionary France, in 1791 wrote “Declaration of Rights of Woman and Citizen”, she opposed Jacobins govt. forceful closure of women clubs & was executed
  

Abolition of Slavery

• Effort of social reform of Jacobin in French colonies in Caribbean - Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo (suppliers of tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee)
  
• Triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and Americas. The slave trade began in the seventeenth century. French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains. Packed on 3 month voyage and were sold to plantation owners
  
• Convention in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions. However, it was reintroduced 10 years later by Napoleon. Finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.
  

Revolution & Everyday Life

• Abolition of censorship
  
• Freedom of speech and expression
  
• Freedom of press
  
• Conclusion
  
• 1804 – Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France – became modernizer of Europe
  
• He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system
  
• Initially was seen as liberator but later as invading force
  
• In 1815 – Defeated at Waterloo
  
• Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming from revolutionary France.
  
• Raja Rammohan Roy was one of those who was inspired by new ideas – French Revolution & later July Revolution (he insisted to visit warships flying revolutionary tricolor)

NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 2: Socialism in Europe and Russia

Timeline

• 1850s -1880s: Debates over socialism in Russia.
  
• 1898: Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party.
  
• 1905: The Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905.
  
• 1917: 2nd March - Abdication of the Tsar & 24th October - Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd.
  
• 1918-20: The Civil War.
  
• 1919: Formation of Comintern.
  
• 1929: Beginning of Collectivization.
  
• 18^th Century: Divided into estates and orders & aristocracy and church controlled economic and social power
  
• In India, Raja Rammohan Roy and Derozio talked of the significance of the French Revolution
  
• Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. It opposed uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. But these were not democrats (not believed in universal adult suffrage) and believed that man of property should vote.
  
• Conservatives: wanted change but wished for a gradual shift, respected past
  
• Radicals: restructured society radically, wanted right to vote for everyone including women, opposed privilege of landowners and factory owners, against private property and concentration of property in hands of few
  

Industrial Society & Social Change

• New industrial regions developed
  
• Railways expanded
  
• Industrial revolution occurred
  
• Brought men, women and children to factories – issues of poor wages, unemployment, housing and sanitation
  
• Value of individual effort, labor and enterprise and not by birth
  
• Bring end to the kind of government established in Europe in 1815
  
• Socialism: against private property (individuals owned property for personal gains but didn’t thought of those who made it productive), change for social interest
  
• Robert Owen: build cooperative community called New Harmony of Indiana (USA), encouraged governments for cooperatives
  
• Louis Blanc in France: encourage cooperatives (association of people and divide profit according to work done by members)
  
• Marx argued that industrial society was ‘capitalist’. Capitalists owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists was produced by workers. Workers must construct socialist society where all property is socially controlled. This is called as communist society.
  

Support for Socialism

• Second International: international body formed for socialism
  
• Workers in England and Germany formed associations to better out living and working conditions – reduction of working hours, right to vote
  
• Germany: Social Democratic Party won seat in parliament
  
• 1905: socialists and trade unionists formed a Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France
  
• Paris Commune of 1871: when the town council (commune) of Paris was taken over by a ‘peoples’ government’ consisting of workers, ordinary people, professionals, political activists and others – occurred due to discontent of policies of French state. Two important legacies:
  
• Association with the workers’ red flag – that was the flag adopted by the communards (revolutionaries) in Paris
  
• ‘Marseillaise’, originally written as a war song in 1792, it became a symbol of the Commune and of the struggle for liberty
  

Russian Revolution

• October Revolution of 1917, fall of monarchy in Feb 2017 and events in October as Russian Revolution
  
• Russian Empire in 1914 – ruled by Tsar Nicholas II included Finland, Lativia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine and Belarus. It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan
  
• Main religion: Russian orthodox Christianity (grown from Greek Christianity)
  
• 85% population thrived on agriculture in Russia as compared to 40-50% in France
  
• Industrial pockets in St. Petersburg and Moscow; craftsmen near large factories; factories were set up in 1890s, railway expanded and foreign investment increased; coal production doubled and iron and steel output quadrupled.
  
• Govt. supervised large factories to ensure minimum wages and limited work hours (craftsman worked 15 hours while in factories people worked 10 or 12 hours)
  
• Workers were divided social group – metal workers required more training and skill; women included 31% factory labor force by 1914 but were paid less than men
  
• Strikes about dismissals or work conditions in 1896-97 & in metal industry in 1902
  
• Peasants were also divided and were religious; nobles got to power and position through service to Tsars & not by local popularity
  
• Peasants refused to pay rent and murdered landlords (in 1902 in south Russia and in 1905 in overall Russia)
  
• They pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir) divided it according to the needs of individual families
  

Socialism in Russia

• All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914. The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas.
  
• Because of government policing, it had to operate as an illegal organization. It set up a newspaper, mobilized workers and organized strikes.
  
• Peasants became the main force of revolution
  
• Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900 – struggled for peasants rights and demanded that land to nobles must be transferred to peasants
  
• Lenin (led Bolshevik group) - believed that peasants were not united (were rich and poor) with differentiation – party must be disciplined, control number and quality of its members
  
• Mensheviks (in Germany) – party should be open to all
  

1905 Revolution

• Russia was autocracy and Tsar was not subject to parliament
  
• Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries along with peasants and workers demanded constitution
  
• They were supported in the empire by nationalists (in Poland) and in Muslim-dominated areas by jadidists who wanted modernized Islam to lead their societies
  
• 1904: price of essential goods rose, real wages declined by 20%
  
• 4 members of the Assembly of Russian Workers, which had been formed in 1904, were dismissed at the Putilov Iron Works – next day 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went to strike for reducing working hours to 8 hours, increasing wages and improving working conditions
  
• Father Gapon led procession to Winter Palace – 100 killed and 300 wounded – incidents were known as Bloody Sunday with
  
  • Strikes across country
    
  • Universities closed down
    
  • Demand for civil liberty & constituent assembly
    
• Allowed creation of elected consultative Parliament or Duma (large number of trade unions and factory committees made up of factory workers)
  
• After 1905, many committees worked unofficially, 1^st Duma dismissed within 75 days and next re-elected in 3 months (not wanted any questioning); changed voting rights and packed 3^rd Duma with conservative politicians
  

1^st World War & Russian Empire

• 1914 war b/w two alliances:
  
  • Germany, Austria and Turkey (Central powers)
    
  • France, Britain & Russia (later Italy and Romania)
    
• Russia - high anti-German sentiments (renamed St. Petersburg to Pterograd). Tsarina Alexandra’s German origins and poor advisers, especially a monk called Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular.
  
• Russia’s armies lost badly in Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916. There were over 7 million casualties by 1917. While retreating they destroyed crops and buildings – led to 3 million refugees in Russia
  
• 1^st world war – eastern front (armies moved) and western front (armies fought from trenches stretched along eastern France)
  
• Impacted industry – industrial equipment disintegrated more rapidly in Russia, by 1916 – railway lines broke down, riots at bread shops, bread and flour became scarce in cities
  

February Revolution in Petrograd

1917: conditions of Petrograd were grim with division among people
River Neva – right bank (quarters and factories) & left bank (fashionable areas)
Shortage of food supply
Excessive cold winters with heavy snowfall
People wanted to preserve elected government and oppose Tsar’s desire to dissolve Duma

• 22 Feb: lockout on factory at right bank
  
• 23 Feb: strike in 50 factories for sympathy and was called International Women’s Day, workers crossed to center of capital Nevskii Prospekt, curfew was imposed
  
• 25 Feb: government suspended Duma
  
• 26 Feb: Demonstrators on left bank
  
• 27 Feb: Police headquarters were ransacked – slogans were raised
  

Cavalry refused to fire on workers; 3 regiments mutinied and joined striking workers
Striking workers met to form “soviet” or “council” and was called as Petrograd Soviet
2 March: Tsar abdicated, Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country
Monarchy was brought down in Feb 1917

After February

• Soviets were set up everywhere with no common election system
  
• Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed
  
• April 1917: Lenin returned from exile – opposed war since 1914, war must close, land to peasants and banks should be nationalized (3 demands as Lenin’s “April theses”)
  
• Bolshevik Party renamed itself the Communist Party to indicate its new radical aims
  
• Factory committees were formed – questioned industrialists
  
• Trade unions grew
  
• Soldier committees were formed in army
  
• 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress of Soviets
  
• Resisted attempts by workers to run factories and began arresting leaders
  
• July 1917: demonstrations by Bolsheviks were repressed
  
• Land committees were formed for redistribution of land (b/w July & Sept 1917)
  

October Revolution, 1917

• Russia followed the Julian calendar until 1 February 1918. The country then changed to the Gregorian calendar, which is followed everywhere today. The Gregorian dates are 13 days ahead of the Julian dates. So by our calendar, the ‘February’ Revolution took place on 12th March and the ‘October’ Revolution took place on 7th November.
  
• Conflict b/w Provisional government and Bolsheviks grew – Lenin feared Provisional Government would set up dictatorship
  
• Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets and factories were brought together
  
• 16 October 1917: Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotskii to organize the seizure. The date of the event was kept a secret.
  
• 24 Oct: Uprising started, military under Prime Minister Kerenskii seized two Bolshevik newspapers, troops sent to protect Winter Palace
  
• By night – city under committees control and ministers surrendered, at a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action.
  
• By December – Bolsheviks controlled Moscow-Petrograd area
  

After October Revolution

• Bolsheviks opposed private properties
  
• Nov. 1917: Industries and banks were nationalized
  
• Land declared social property & peasants allowed to seize land of nobility
  
• Banned old titles under aristocracy
  
• Enforced partition of large houses according to family requirements
  
• New uniform for army – after competition and Soviet hat (budenovka) was chosen
  
• Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)
  
• November 1917: Bolsheviks conducted elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain majority support.
  
• January 1918: Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly & All Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic
  
• March 1918: Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk
  
• Later, Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country
  
• Russia became one party state
  
• Trade unions were kept under party control
  
• Secret police (Cheka first, OGPU and NKVD) punished those who criticized Bolsheviks
  

Civil War

• When Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, Russian army began to break up
  
• Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. Their leaders moved to south Russia and organized troops to fight the Bolsheviks (‘reds’).
  
• During 1918 and 1919, the ‘greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘whites’ (pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire. They were backed by French, American, British and Japanese troops – all those forces who were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia.
  
• Looting, banditry and famine became common.
  
• Whites took harsh steps with peasants who seized land
  
• By Jan 1920: Bolsheviks controlled most of Russia
  
• In Khiva, in Central Asia, Bolshevik colonists brutally massacred local nationalists in the name of defending socialism.
  
• Non-Russian nationalities were given political autonomy in USSR (created by Bolsheviks) in Dec 1922
  
• Bolsheviks had harsh discouragement of nomadism (attempts to win different nationalities were partly successful)
  

Socialist Society

• Industries and banks were nationalized
  
• Cultivate land that was socialized
  
• Confiscated land to demonstrate what collective work could be
  
• Centralized planning was introduced – officials assessed economy and set targets for 5-year period (made five year plans)
  
• Govt. fixed prices to promote industrial growth during first two plans
  
• Centralized planning led to economic growth
  
• Industrial production increased
  
• New factory cities came into being
  
• Extended schooling system developed & arrangements made for factory workers to enter universities
  
• Creches were established in factories
  
• Cheap public health care
  
• Model living quarters
  
• Factories became symbol of socialism
  
• In Magnitogorsk, construction of a steel plant was achieved in three years. Workers lived hard lives and the result was 550 stoppages of work in the first year alone
  

Stalinism and Collectivisation

• 1927-28: towns of Soviet Russia were facing acute problems of grain supplies – govt. fixed the prices but peasants refused to sell it at that price
  
• Stalin after death of Lenin – introduced emergency measures – rich peasants were holding stock in hope of price rise and aimed to stop speculation and confiscated supplies
  
• 1928: kulaks (well to do peasants) were raided, grain shortage was due to small size of holdings and decision was taken for collective farms & eliminate kulaks
  
• Collectivization Program – 1929 – all peasants to cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz); land and implements were transferred to ownership of collective farms
  
• Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared.
  
• Who resisted collectivization were punished, deported and exiled
  
• Bad harvests of 1930-1933 led to one of most devastating famines in Soviet history when over 4 million died (despite collectivization)
  
• Critics: 2 million in prison and labor camps
  

Global Influence of Russian Revolution & USSR

• Encouraged Communist Party of Great Britain
  
• Non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and the Bolshevik-founded Comintern (an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties)
  

Indian Views

• M. N. Roy was an Indian revolutionary, a founder of the Mexican Communist Party and prominent Comintern leader in India, China and Europe
  
• Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore wrote about Soviet Socialism.
  
• In Hindi, R.S. Avasthi wrote in 1920-21 Russian Revolution, Lenin, His Life and His Thoughts, and later The Red Revolution.
  
• S.D. Vidyalankar wrote The Rebirth of Russia and The Soviet State of Russia. There was much that was written in Bengali, Marathi, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu.
  

 NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 3: Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

• 1945 – Helmuth (parents discussing something in serious tones – allies will do to us what we did to crippled and Jews) and his father shot himself. He didn’t eat at home for 9 years fearing that his mother will poison him.
  
• His father was Nazi & supporter of Hitler
  

Hitler

• Determined to make Germany a mighty power
  
• Ambition to conquer Europe
  
• Killed Jews
  
• Nazism – structure of ideas and politics
  

In May 1945, Germany surrendered to the Allies (UK and France – later joined by USSR and USA). Anticipating what was coming, Hitler, his propaganda minister Goebbels and his entire family committed suicide collectively in his Berlin bunker in April.
At the end of the war, International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg was set up to prosecute Nazi war criminals for Crimes against Peace, for War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (moral and ethical questions)
Genocidal War – under shadow of 2^nd world war – mass murder - 6 million Jews, 200,000 Gypsies, 1 million Polish civilians, 70,000 Germans who were considered mentally and physically disabled – by gassing them in killing centers like Auschwitz

Birth of Weimar Republic

• 1^st world war – Germany & Austria versus England, France and Russia
  
• Europe was drained of its resources
  
• Germany made initial gain over France and Russia
  
• Later USA entered in 1917
  
• Germany and Central Powers defeated in 1918
  
• Defeat of Germany & abdication of emperor – gave opportunity to recast German polity
  
• National assembly met at Weimar – established democratic constitution with federal structure
  
• Deputies elected to German Parliament or Reichstag – based on equal vote by all adults including women
  
• Couldn’t remain long
  

1st World War – Germany and Austria vs England, France and Russia

Map of 1st world war – Germany and Austria versus England, France and Russia

• Peace treaty at Versailles – harsh and humiliating
  
• Germany
  
• Lost overseas colonies
  
• 1/10^th population
  
• 13% territories
  
• 75% iron
  
• 26% coal to France, Poland, Denmark and Lithuania
  
• Demilitarized to weaken power
  
• Germany was responsible for war and damages to Allied Powers
  
• Pay compensation of 6 billion pounds
  
• Allies occupied Rhineland by 1920s
  
• Many Germans held Weimar Republic responsible for defeat & disgrace
  

Impact of War

• Europe turned from creditor to debitor
  
• Weimar republic was financially crippled and forced to pay compensation
  
• Socialists, Catholics and Democrats (‘November criminals’) supported Weimar Republic - became easy targets of attack in the conservative nationalist circles
  
• Soldiers were above civilians
  
• Men were aggressive, strong and masculine
  

Political Radicalism and Economic Crisis

• Weimar republic coincided with birth of the Spartacist League on the pattern of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
  
• Soviet of workers and sailors were established
  
• Demands for Soviet-style governance
  
• Weimar Republic crushed uprising with the help of a war veteran organization called Free Corps.
  
• Anguished Spartacists later founded the Communist Party of Germany
  
• Political radicalization as heightened by economic crisis of 1923
  
• Germany fought war in loans and paid reparations in gold which depleted the gold reserves
  
• Germany refused to pay and French occupied Ruhr area
  
• Germany started printing paper notes – value of currency Mark declined & price of goods soared - hyperinflation (April – 1US $ = 24,000 marks & in December – 2 trillion)
  

Dawes Plan

• Released financial burden on Germans
  
• America intervened
  

Depression

• 1924-28 – years of stability
  
• 1929 – Wall Street Exchange collapsed (fall in prices) – in 1 day around 13 million shares were sold – start of economic depression
  
• 1929 -32 – national income of USA halved
  
• Factories shutdown, farmers were hit, export fell and speculators took money off the market
  
• 1932 – Industrial production of Germany reduced to 40% of 1929 – lost jobs, paid reduced wages, unemployment at 6 million
  
  • Criminal activities increased
    
  • Savings of old age lost as current lost its value
    
  • Fear of proletarianisation (impoverished to level of working class), an anxiety of being reduced to ranks of the working class, or worse still & unemployed
    
  • Peasantry couldn’t fill stomach
    

Defects under Weimar Republic

• Proportional representation - made achieving a majority by any one party a near impossible task, leading to a rule by coalitions.
  
• Article 48 - President the powers to impose emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree
  

Within its short life, the Weimar Republic saw twenty different cabinets lasting on an average 239 days, and a liberal use of Article 48

Hitler’S Rise to Power

• Born in 1889 – Austria
  
• Youth in poverty
  
• Powerful speaker
  
• Build strong nation
  
• Undo injustice of Treaty of Versailles
  
• Restore dignity of German people
  
• Weed out foreign influence & resist foreign conspiracies
  
• Significance of rituals and mass mobilization
  
• Massive rallies and demonstrations
  
• Red banners with Swastika, Nazi salute
  
• Enrolled for army, became a corporal and earned medal for bravery
  
  • 1919: Joined German Worker’s Party
    
  • Renamed it as National Socialist German Worker’s Party (Nazi Party) – converted Germany to totalitarian state
    
  • 1923: Planned to seize Bavaria, march to Berlin and capture power – failed, arrested and tried for treason
    
  • Couldn’t mobilize support till 1930s
    
  • During Great Depression – Nazism became a mass movement
    
  • After 1929 – banks collapsed, workers lost job, middle class threatened
    
  • 1928 – got 2.6% vote in Reichstag – German Parliament
    
  • By 1932 – became largest party with 37% votes
    

Destruction of Power

• 1933 - President Hindenburg offered Chancellorship, the highest position in the cabinet of ministers, to Hitler.
  
• Hitler tried to dismantle democratic rule
  
• Fire broke in German parliament in February - Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 indefinitely suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly
  
• Concentration camp – A camp where people were isolated and detained without due process of law. Typically, it was surrounded by electrified barbed wire fences – for communists
  
• On 3 March 1933 - Enabling Act was passed, it established dictatorship in Germany. It gave Hitler all powers to sideline Parliament and rule by decree. All political parties and trade unions were banned except Nazis
  
• Regular police in green uniform
  
• SA or the Storm Troopers included the Gestapo (secret state police), SS (protection squads), criminal police and Security Service (SD)
  

Reconstruction

• Hitler gave economic recovery to economist Hjalmar Schacht who aimed at full production and full employment through a state-funded work-creation program – produced superhighways and cars Volkswagen.
  
• Pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933
  
• Reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936
  
• Integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan, One people, One empire, and One leader.
  
• Took over Czechoslovakia
  
• Hitler choose war as option to reach out economic crisis – resources to be accumulated by expansion of territory
  
• In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France and England.
  
• In September 1940, Tripartite Pact was signed between Germany, Italy and Japan, strengthening Hitler’s claim to international power.
  
• Puppet regimes, supportive of Nazi Germany, were installed in a large part of Europe
  
• By the end of 1940, Hitler was at the pinnacle of his power.
  

Map of Union of Soviet Socialist Republic

Map of Union of Soviet Socialist Republic

• Attacked Soviet Union in 1941 – Soviet army defeated Germany at Stalingrad. Soviet Red Army reached till heart of Berlin
  
• USA resisted involvement in war due to huge losses incurred in WWI. But Japan was expanding to east by occupying French Indo-China and US naval bases in Pacific.
  
• Japan extended support to Hitler & bombed Pearl Harbor, USA – entering in WW-II (ended in 1945 with defeat of Hitler and nuclear bomb on Hiroshima)
  

Nazi Views

• No equality only racial hierarchy
  
• Nordic German Aryans were at top and Jews at lowest rank (idea borrowed from Charles Darwin – evolution and natural selection; Herbert Spencer – survival of fittest)
  
• Strongest race would survive and weakest would perish
  
• Aryans – finest race, pure, strong and would dominate the world
  
• Lebensraum or living space – new territories to be acquired for settlement – enhance area and enable new settlers
  
• Poland became the laboratory for experimentation
  

Racial State Established

• Physically eliminated all those who were not desirable
  
• Even impure Germans had no right to exist
  
• Euthanasia Program – German physically or mentally unfit were condemned to death
  
• Inferior clans – Jews (killer of Christ and usurers), Gypsies, Blacks, Russian and Poles
  
• Jews – barred from owning land, only trade and do moneylending, lived in ghettos
  
• From 1933 to 1938 the Nazis terrorized, pauperized and segregated the Jews, compelling them to leave the country
  
• Nuremberg Laws of citizenship of September 1935:
  
• Only Persons of German or related blood would henceforth be German citizens enjoying the protection of the German empire.
  
  • Marriages between Jews and Germans were forbidden.
    
  • Extramarital relations between Jews and Germans became a crime.
    
  • Jews were forbidden to fly the national flag.
    
• Other legal measures included:
  
  • Boycott of Jewish businesses
    
  • Expulsion from government services
    
  • Forced selling and confiscation of their properties
    
• 1938 – remembered as night of broken glass
  
• From 1939-1945 they aimed at concentrating them in certain areas and eventually killing them in gas chambers in Poland
  
• Ghettoization (hunger, starvation and deprivation) – All Jews to wear yellow Star of David
  
• After 1941 – Annihilation – Jews brought to death factories by goods trains
  
• In Poland and elsewhere in the east, most notably Belzek, Auschwitz, Sobibor, Treblinka, Chelmno and Majdanek, they were charred in gas chambers. Mass killings took place within minutes with scientific precision.
  
• NW Poland – annexed by Germany (Poles forced to leave to other parts as General Government or destination for undesirables)
  
• Polish children similar to Aryans were examined by race experts – if passed would live with German families else would go to orphanage
  

Youth in Nazi Germany

• Schools cleansed and purified under Nazis
  
• Jew teachers were dismissed
  
• German and Jews children were separated
  
• Good German got Nazi schooling – textbooks were written and racial science was common, stereotypes against Jews were given, sports aimed to nurture violence and aggression
  
• Educate in spirit of National Socialism
  
• 10 years old – enter Jungvolk (Nazi youth Group)
  
• 14 years old – boys joined Hitler Youth (worship war, glorify aggression and violence, condemn democracy, and hate Jews, communists, Gypsies)
  
• 18 years – join Labour Service, serve Armed forces & enter Nazi organization
  
• 1922- Youth League was formed (after 4 years called Hitler Youth)
  
• While boys were taught to be aggressive, masculine and steel hearted, girls were told that they had to become good mothers and rear pure-blooded Aryan children. Girls had to maintain the purity of the race, distance from Jews, look after children and teach Nazi sentiments
  
• To encourage women to produce many children, Honor Crosses were awarded. A bronze cross was given for four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more.
  

Propaganda

• Nazis never used the words ‘kill’ or ‘murder’ in their official communications.
  
• Mass killings were termed special treatment, final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled), selection and disinfections.
  
• ‘Evacuation’ meant deporting people to gas chambers
  
• Gas chambers were known as ‘disinfection-areas’, and looked like bathrooms equipped with fake showerheads.
  
• Socialists and liberals were represented as weak and degenerate.
  
• Orthodox Jews were stereotyped and marked – shown as flowing beard wearing Kaftan (in reality hard to differentiate from German Jews)
  
• Charlotte Beradt book “Third Reich of Dreams” - describes how Jews themselves began believing in the Nazi stereotypes about them. They dreamt of their hooked noses, black hair and eyes, Jewish looks and body movements. Jews died many deaths even before they reached the gas chamber.
  
• Nazi killing operations called as Holocaust - when the war seemed lost, the Nazi leadership distributed petrol to its functionaries to destroy all incriminating evidence available in offices.
  
• “These are a tribute to those who resisted it, an embarrassing reminder to those who collaborated, and a warning to those who watched in silence.”
  
  NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 4: Forest Society and Colonialism
  

  What Forest Gives Us?

• Books, desks and tables, doors and windows, dyes, tendu leaf in bidis, gum, honey, coffee, tea and rubber
  
• B/w 1700 & 1995 – 13.9 million sq. km. of forest or 9.3% was cleared for industrial use
  

Deforestation

• Disappearance of forests
  
• In 1600, 1/6^th of India’s landmass was under cultivation & now it has increased to half
  
• In colonial period, cultivation expanded
  
• British encouraged production of jute, sugar, cotton – demand increased & production of raw material increased
  
• Early 10^th century – believed forest as unproductive and wilderness – so idea was to bring them under cultivation, increase yield and enhance income
  
• B/w 1880 & 1920 – cultivated area rose by 6.7 million hectares
  
• Sleepers for railways – adivasis were hired to cut sal trees
  
• In Australia – when settlers came – they believed land was empty or terra nullius
  
• Ngarrindjeri people of Australia plotted their land along the symbolic body of the first ancestor, Ngurunderi. This land included five different environments: salt water, riverine tracts, lakes, bush and desert plains, which satisfied different socio-economic needs.
  
• Central America – American owned United Fruit Company was founded and grew banana on industrial scale in Central America. The government acquired such powers that they were known as Banana Republics.
  
• 19^th Century – oak forest in England were disappearing – created problem of timber supply for Royal Navy. So by 1820s sent parties to explore forest in India (& timber was exported from India)
  
• 1850s – railways spread created demand for timber – important for colonial trade and each railway required 1760 to 2000 sleepers (only in Madras presidency around 35,000 trees were cut every year) – forests started disappearing
  
• (LOGIC: One average sized tree yields 3 to 5 sleepers for a 3 metre wide broad gauge track)
  
• By 1890 – 25,500 km track was laid for railways which increased to 765,000 km in 1946
  

Plantations

• Large area of natural forests were cleared for plantation of tea, coffee and rubber
  
• Colonial govt. took the forest and gave it to European planters at cheap rate
  

Commercial Forestry

Dietrich Brandis - first Inspector General of Forests in India

• Asked for system to manage the forest and people to be trained in science of conservation
  
• Rules about use of forest resources must be framed
  
• Restrict felling of trees and grazing
  
• Gave Indian Forest Service in 1864 & formulated Indian Forest Act 1865
  

1906 – Imperial Forest Research Institute was established in Dehradun – taught scientific forestry (poplar trees for timber in straight lines) – plant only one type of tree in straight rows – old trees were cut and new were planted
Forest act was amended in 1878 and 1927
1878 Act – 3 forest types as reserved (bets and villagers could take nothing), protected and village forests

What Forests Give?

• Villagers wanted mix of species – fuel, fodder and leaves
  
• Mahua flowers can be eaten or used to make alcohol. The seeds can be used to make oil.
  
• Hard wood trees – tall and straight like teak and sal
  
• Fruits and tubers are nutritious to eat
  
• Herbs for medicines
  
• Wood for agricultural implements like ploughs
  
• Bamboo for fences, baskets and umbrellas
  
• Siadi (Bauhinia vahlii) creeper can be used to make ropes
  
• Thorny bark of the semur (silk-cotton) tree is used to grate vegetables
  
• After Forest Act – collect wood, collecting fruits, hunting and fishing became illegal
  

How Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

Shifting or Swidden Cultivation

• Lading in Southeast Asia
  
• Milpa in Central America
  
• Chitemene or tavy in Africa
  
• Chena in Sri Lanka
  
• Dhya, penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri in India
  

Seeds sown after 1^st monsoon, crops harvested in Oct-Nov
Left fallow for 12-18 years
Seeds are scattered and left to irrigated by rain
Then again mix crop is grown (millets in India and Africa; manioc in Brazil and maize and beans in Latin America)
Europeans considered shifting cultivation as dangerous – burning add to flames
Also it was hard to calculate taxes – so was later banned
Many shifted to different occupations
Taungya cultivation in which local farmers were allowed to cultivate temporarily within a plantation in Burma. For sowing paddy, men make holes in the soil using long bamboo poles with iron tips. The women sow paddy in each hole.
Baiga are forest community in Central India – involved in shifting cultivation

Who Could Hunt?

• Those caught hunting were punished for poaching
  
• Forest laws deprived people of customary rights to hunt
  
• Hunting was part of culture for Mughals but under colonial rule it increased to a level that species got extinct
  
• Britishers gave rewards for killing wild animals like tigers, wolves, etc.
  
• Over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards and 200,000 wolves were killed for reward in the period 1875-1925. Gradually, the tiger came to be seen as a sporting trophy.
  
• Maharaja of Sarguja alone shot 1,157 tigers and 2,000 leopards up to 1957
  
• British administrator, George Yule, killed 400 tigers
  
• Later environmentalist and conservators began to argue
  

New Trades, New Employments and New Services

• Many got in new jobs – trading forest products
  
• Mid-19^th century - Mundurucu peoples of the Brazilian Amazon who lived in villages on high ground and cultivated manioc, began to collect latex from wild rubber trees for supplying to traders – live in trading posts and got totally dependent on traders
  
• India – trade in hides, horns, silk cocoons, ivory, bamboo, spices, fibres, grasses, gums and resins through nomadic communities like the Banjaras
  
• After British Government - pastoralist and nomadic communities like the Korava, Karacha and Yerukula of Madras Presidency lost their livelihoods. Some were called ‘criminal tribes’, and were forced to work instead in factories, mines and plantations, under government supervision.
  
• In Assam, both men and women from forest communities like Santhals and Oraons from Jharkhand, and Gonds from Chhattisgarh were recruited to work on tea plantations – low wages and bad work conditions
  
• Rubber extractions in Putumayo – extraction by Peruvian Rubber Company which was dependent on local Indians called Huitotos
  

Rebellion in Forest

Leaders of movements against the British were

• Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas
  
• Birsa Munda of Chhotanagpur
  
• Alluri Sitarama Raju of Andhra Pradesh
  

Bastar

• South of Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Maharashtra
  
• Central part is plateau with north as Chhattisgarh plains and south as Godavari plains
  
• Indravati River crosses Bastar east to west
  
• Communities - Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas
  
• People speak different languages, customs and beliefs
  
• Show respect to earth, river, forest and mountains
  

In 1947 Bastar kingdom was merged with Kanker kingdom and become Bastar district in Madhya Pradesh
In 1998 it was divided again into three districts, Kanker, Bastar and Dantewada
In 2001, these became part of Chhattisgarh
If people from a village want to take some wood from the forests of another village, they pay a small fee called devsari, dand or man in exchange
Villages protected forest by engaging watchmen and each household contribute some grains to pay

Fears of People

• In 1905 – British govt. asked to reserve 2/3^rd forest in 1905, stop cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce.
  
• Some were asked to work free for forest department in cutting trees and protecting them from fires – were known as forest villages
  
• Villagers were suffering from high land rent, demand for free labor and goods
  
• Famine affected in 1899-1900 and 1907-08
  
• Initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place
  
• Gunda Dhur from Nethanar village was important leader
  
• In 1910, mango boughs, a lump of earth, chillies and arrows, began circulating between villages. These were actually messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British
  
• British surround Adivasi camps and fired – marched to villages and punished the rebellion
  
• Work on reservation was suspended and area to be reserved was reduced to half of that planned before 1910
  
• In the 1970s, World Bank proposed that 4,600 hectares of natural sal forest should be replaced by tropical pine to provide pulp for the paper industry. It was only after protests by local environmentalists that the project was stopped.
  

Indonesia

• Most of Indonesia’s forests are located in islands like Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Irian.
  
• Java is where the Dutch began their ‘scientific forestry’.
  
• Java – now rice producing region with Dutch powers who started forest management – known for teak
  
• Like British, they wanted timber from Java to build ships
  
• In 1600, population of Java was 3.4 million with fertile plains
  
• Kalangs of Java – skilled forest cutters
  
• In 1755 – Mataram kingdom of Java split – 6,000 Kalang families were equally divided between two kingdoms
  
• Dutch wanted Kalangs to work under them
  
• In 1770, Kalangs resisted by attacking Dutch fort at Joana but were suppressed
  
• 19^th century – Dutch enacted forest laws in Java and restricted villagers access to forests – wood could now be cut only for specific purpose like boats/houses
  
• In 1882, 280,000 sleepers were exported from Java alone.
  
• Blandongdiensten System: Dutch first imposed rents on land being cultivated in the forest and then exempted some villages from these rents if they worked collectively to provide free labor and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber.
  
• Later rather than rent exemption, forest villagers were given small wages, but their right to cultivate forest land was restricted.
  

Samin’S Challenge

• Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, began questioning state ownership of the forest. He argued that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own it. Soon a widespread movement developed.
  
• 3000 families followed him
  
• Some protested by laying down on land when survey was done and others refused to pay tax/fine or perform labor
  
• Java, just before the Japanese occupied the region, the Dutch followed ‘a scorched earth’ policy, destroying sawmills, and burning huge piles of giant teak logs so that they would not fall into Japanese hands.
  
• Japanese then exploited the forests recklessly.
  
• Both WW-I and WW-II had devastating impacts on forests to satisfy war needs
  
• After 1980 – conservation of forest became main goal
  
• Across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villages protected them in sacred groves known as sarnas, devarakudu, kan, rai, etc.
  
• Villages have been patrolling their own forest with households taking turns to guard them
  

• 
  NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 5: Pastoralists in the Modern World
  

  Nomads

• People don’t live at one place but move from one place to another
  
• Bugyals – Eastern Garhwal – natural pastures on high mountains above 12,000 feet
  

Natural Pastures on High Mountains Above 12000 Feet

Image of natural pastures on high mountains above 12,000 feet

Pastoral Nomads

Gujjar Bakarwals of J&K are herders of goats and sheep

• They established in an area and moved annually b/w winter and summer grounds
  
• In Winters – live in low hills of Shiwaliks, dry scrub forest
  
• In summers – march northwards forming kafila – they cross Pir Panjal and enter Kashmir Valley – by September they move back downhill
  
• Live in Mandaps (hill bamboo and grass from Bugyal) at 10,000 to 11,000 feet – make ghee & sell, buffaloes cant climb further higher
  

Gaddi, Himachal Pradesh

• Shepherds with seasonal movement cycle
  
• Spend winters in low hills of Siwaliks
  
• In April – move north and spent summer in Lahul & Spiti
  
• In Sept – stop in villages of Lahul & Spiti, reap summer harvest and sow winter crop
  
• Bhabar (dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun) in winters
  
• Bugyal (Vast meadows in the high mountains) in summers
  
• Many are originally from Jammu and came to UP hill sin 19^th century for good pastures
  

Others who practice are Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris. They adjust to seasonal changes

On Plains, Plateaus and Deserts

Dhangars

• Pastoral community of Maharashtra
  
• Mainly shepherds, some as blanket weavers and buffalo herders
  
• Stay in central plateau during monsoon – semi arid region with low rain and poor soil, covered with thorny scrub & dry crops like bajra
  
• By Oct – harvest bajra and move west & reach Konkan (agriculture with high rain and rich soil) – welcomed by Konkani peasants
  
• After Kharif (autumn crop – harvest b/w Sept & Oct) harvest was cut, fields have to be fertilized and made ready for rabi (Spring crop – harvest after March) harvest
  
• In Monsoon – leave Konkan to dry plateau as it can’t tolerate wet monsoon conditions
  

Gollas: Karnataka and AP – herded cattle

• Kurumas & Kurubas: Reared sheep and goats & sold blankets, lived near woods on small land patches. Here it is not cold and snow but alternation of monsoon and dry season (only buffaloes like swamp conditions in coastal tracts while others shift to dry places)
  
• Banjaras: group of graziers – UP, Punjab, Rajasthan, MP and Maharashtra – move long distance, sell plough cattle for grain and fodder
  
• Maru (Desert) raikas: camel herders and their settlement called dhandi – meager and uncertain rainfall; combine cultivation with pastoralism. During the monsoons, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner stayed in their home villages, where pasture was available. By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in search of other pasture and water, and returned again during the next monsoon.
  
• Raika camels (Thar Desert in western Rajasthan) - Only camels can survive on the dry and thorny bushes that can be found here; but to get enough feed they have to graze over a very extensive area – camel fair at Balotra & Pushkar. Raika genealogist recounts the history of the community. Oral traditions give pastoral groups their own sense of identity & tell us about how a group looks at its own past.
  
• Maldhari herders: Move in search of pastures and their villages are in Rann of Kutch
  

Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

• Under colonial rule, grazing ground shrank, movements were regulated and revenue increased, agricultural stock declined and trade was adversely affected
  
• Wanted to transform grazing land into cultivated farms – land revenue was main source of finance
  
• Expansion of cultivation led to increase of revenue & produce more jute, cotton, wheat required in England
  
• Uncultivated land was unproductive and waste land
  
• Waste Land Rules – uncultivated land was taken over and given to selected individuals who were granted concessions and encouraged to settle these lands
  
• Forest Acts were enacted (commercially valuable forests like deodar and sal were declared reserved); in others customary grazing rights were granted but movement was restricted.
  
• Some believed grazing destroyed saplings and young shoots
  
• In the areas where they were allowed – time for entry and exit were specified, number of days were also specified, they had to move even if grass was available
  
• Britishers were suspicious of nomadic people, distrusted craftsman and traders & wanted to rule over settled people
  
• In 1871, colonial government in India passed Criminal Tribes Act - By this Act many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes (criminal by nature and birth). Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them.
  
• To expand revenue, colonial govt. looked for all sources of taxation on land, water, salt, trade goods and animals
  
• Grazing tax was introduced in mid-19^th century – taxes per head went up significantly – contractors tried to extract high tax to recover money. To enter a grazing tract, a cattle herder had to show the pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass.
  

How Changes Affected Pastoralists?

With restrictions, grazing was continuous and quality of pastures declined – created shortage of forage for animals and deterioration of animal stock.

Image of Changes Affected Pastoralists

Image of changes affected Pastoralists

How Did Pastoralists Cope with These Changes?

• Some reduced number of cattle
  
• Others changes the pasture areas
  
• After 1947, Raikas couldn’t move to Sindh and graze camels on banks of Indus River – now migrate to Haryana
  
• Some bought lands and settled down – took to trading
  
• Some borrowed money and became laborers
  
• Changed direction of movement, reduced size of herd, combined pastoralism with other income and adopted to changes in modern world
  

Pastoralism in Africa

• Africa is home to half of world’s pastoral population
  
• Over 22 million African depends on pastoralism
  
• Communities include Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Turkana – most live in semi-arid/arid deserts
  
• Raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys; and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool – earn by trade and transport
  
• Maasai (Kenya & Tanzania) believed that tilling the land for crop farming is a crime against nature.
  
• Maasis (means My People) have witnessed loss of grazing land – stretched from North Korea to steppes of Northern Tanzania
  
• In 1885 – Maasiland was cut into half with boundary b/w British Kenya and German Tanganyika (attained independence in 1961 and united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania in 1964)
  

Tanganyika and Zanzibar United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar

Image of attained independence in 1961 and united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania in 1964

• Best land was taken by white settlements and Maasis were pushed to small area in S. Kenya and N. Tanzania and lost about 60% of pre-colonial lands
  
• With expansion of cultivation, pastureland turned to cultivated lands
  
• Grazing lands turned into game reserves like Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania – pastoralist were not allowed to enter – couldn’t hunt or graze animals
  
• Colonial govt. imposed restrictions on movement and people were forced to live within special reserves, were not allowed to enter markets in white areas, prohibited from participating in trade
  
• In 1930 Maasai in Kenya possessed 720,000 cattle, 820,000 sheep and 171,000 donkeys. In just two years of severe drought, 1933 and 1934, over half the cattle in the Maasai Reserve died.
  
• Maasai society was divided into elders and warriors. Elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes. Warriors consisted of younger people responsible for protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organized cattle raids.
  
• Ritual to become warrior - They must travel throughout the section’s region for about four months, ending with an event where they run to the homestead and enter with an attitude of a raider.
  
• Warriors wear traditional deep red shukas, brightly beaded Maasai jewelry and carry five-foot, steel tipped spears. Their long pleats of intricately plaited hair are tinted red with ochre. As per tradition they face East to honor the rising sun.
  
• Traditional difference b/w elders and warriors was disturbed & distinction b/w wealthy and poor pastoralists developed
  
• In Namibia, in SW Africa, Kaokoland herders moved between Kaokoland and Ovamboland, and sold skin, meat and other trade products in neighboring markets. All this was stopped with the new system of territorial boundaries that restricted movements between regions.
  
• Adoption of pastoralists – change path of movement, reduce cattle numbers, press for rights to enter new areas, exert political pressure on government, subsidy and demand right in management of forest and water resources – suited to hilly and dry regions of the world
  

• 
  NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 6: Peasant and Farmers
  

  Agriculture in England

• In 1830 and 2 years ahead – riots spread in southern England and 387 threshing machines were broken
  
• Before this large part of countryside was open and not partitioned into enclosed lands privately owned by landlords
  
• At the beginning of each year – each villager was allocated strips to cultivate (varied quality and located in different places)
  
• All villagers had access to the commons. Here they pastured their cows and grazed their sheep, collected fuelwood for fire and berries and fruit for food.
  
• For poor, common land was for survival
  
• 16^th century – price of wool went up & rich farmers expanded wool production to earn profits – wanted to improve breeds and control large areas to allow improved breeding – started separating there property by enclosing common land around their holdings
  
• Early enclosures were created by individual landlords & not supported by state or church
  
• b/w 1750 and 1860 – 6 million acres of land was enclosed & British govt. passed 4,000 acts legalizing these enclosures
  
• 16^th century enclosure for sheep farming and 18^th century for grain production
  
• Population increased from 7 million in 1750 to 30 million in 1900 – increased demand for food grain and price rise, industrialization was taking place
  
• France in war with England and foodgrain supplies disrupted, prices skyrocketed and encouraged landowners to enclose lands and enlarge areas under grain cultivation – profits flowed in and enclosure acts were passed
  

Age of Enclosures

• Earlier – rapid population growth was followed by period of food shortages
  
• In 19^th century – grain production was growing as quickly as population
  
• In 1868 – 80% food it consumed was produced and rest was imported
  
• Increase in foodgrain production was possible not by innovation in agricultural technology but by bringing new land under cultivation
  
• Landlords sliced up pasturelands, carved up open fields, cut up forest commons, took over marshes, and turned larger and larger areas into agricultural fields
  
• 1660s – farmers grew turnip (fodder crop) and cloves (improved soil and fertility) – increased nitrogen content in soil
  
• Enclosures – long term investments on land and plan crop rotations to improve soil, allow rich landowners to expand land and produce more for market
  

What Happened to Poor?

• With fences, enclosed land became property of one landowner
  
• Poor couldn’t collect firewood from forest or graze cattle on commons, couldn’t collect food or hunt animals or gather the stalks
  
• Poor were displaced and their customary rights were disappearing – moved from Midlands to southern counties of England (intensively cultivated but had demand for labourers)
  
• After 1800, labourers were paid wages and employed only during harvest time (unsecure work, uncertain employment and unstable income)
  

Threshing Machines Introduced

• During Napoleonic Wars, prices of foodgrains were high and farmers expanded production – fear of shortage of labourers and bought new threshing machines
  
• Machines would reduce dependence on labourers
  
• After Napoleonic Wars – soldiers returned to villages for alternate jobs. Now grain came from Europe, prices declined and agricultural depression set in
  
• They demanded import of crops to be stopped and cut wages
  
• The richer farmers expanded grain production, sold this grain in the world market, made profits, and became powerful. The poor left their villages in large numbers.
  

Bread Basket and Dust Bowl

• End of 18^th century – forest covered 800 million acres and grasslands covered 600 million acres
  
• Till 1780s – white Americans were confined to narrow coastal strip in east
  

Forest Vegetation, Tall Grass, Short Grass, Desert Vegetation

Map of Forest Vegetation, Tall Grass, Short Grass, Desert Vegetation

By 1920’s landscape transformed and white Americans moved westward, displaced local tribes and carved landscape into different agricultural belt

1920’S Landscape Transformed- White Americans Westward

Map of 1920’s landscape transformed and white Americans moved westward

• After American War of Independence from 1775 to 1783 and formation of USA – white Americans began to move westward
  
• American Indians had to be cleared from land – Indians were massacred and many of their villages were burnt – Indians resisted but were forced to sign treaties
  
• As Indians retreated settlers poured in successive waves – 1^st decade of 18^th century to Appalachians; into Mississippi valley b/w 1820 to 1850 – burnt forest, cleared land for cultivation, built log cabins, cleared larger area, erected fences, ploughed land and sowed corn and wheat
  

Westward Expansion of White Settlement 1775 and 1920

Image of Westward expansion of white settlement between 1775 and 1920

• When fertility was exhausted, they moved further west to explore new lands – later Great Plains became major wheat producing area
  
• Late 19^th century – urban population was growing and so was export market – as demand increased, wheat price rose and encouraged farmers to produce wheat – railway expansion helped it
  
• During WW-I – world market boomed as Russian supplies were cut off & USA had to feed Europe
  
• US President Wilson called upon farmers to respond to the need of the time: ‘Plant more wheat, wheat will win the war,’
  
• In 1910, about 45 million acres of land in the USA was under wheat. 9 years later, the area had expanded to 74 million acres, an increase of about 65%.
  
• Big farmers, wheat barons controlled as much as 2,000 to 3,000 acres of land individually
  
• Settlers moved to new habitats and new lands they modified the implements – from simple plough to new ploughs – walking plough with small wheel (12 ft long)
  
• Scythe was used for mowing grass before mid 19^th century
  
• Before 1830 – harvest by cradle or sickle
  
• In1831, Cyrus McCormick invented the first mechanical reaper which could cut in one day as much as five men could cut with cradles and 16 men with sickles
  
• By early 20^th century – most farmers were using combined harvesters (500 acres of land could be harvested in 2 weeks)
  
• The new machines allowed these big farmers to rapidly clear large tracts, break up the soil, remove the grass and prepare the ground for cultivation - work could be done quickly with a minimal number of hands.
  
• With power-driven machinery, four men could plough, seed and harvest 2,000 to 4,000 acres of wheat in a season.
  
• For poor – machines brought misery (those who had no money, banks offered loans but people were unable to repay) – mechanization reduced need for labor
  
• With expanding production there was surplus – store houses were overflowed and prices of wheat fell & exports collapsed – created Great Agrarian Depression of 1930s
  
• 1930s witnessed dust storms over southern plains with black blizzards – dust swept in, cattle suffocated, numerous deaths – persistent years of drought with failed rains and high temperature – whole region became a dust bowl and American dream turned to be a nightmare
  
• After 1930s, they realized that they had to respect the ecological conditions of each region
  

India and Opium

• British rule was establishing after Battle of Plassey (1757)
  
• Rural landscape was transformed and land revenue was major source of income
  
• Early 19^th century – indigo and opium were two major commercial crops
  
• Sugarcane, cotton, jute & wheat were produced to feed urban Europe and to supply to mills in Lancashire and Manchester in England
  
• Late 18^th century – East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for England (in 1785 – 15 million pound tea was imported and by 1830 it rose to 30 million pounds)
  
• Profit of East India Company came to depend on tea trade
  
• Manchus, Confucian ruler of China were suspicious of foreign merchants and were unwilling to allow entry of foreign goods – Britishers were looking to sell commodity in China and stop loss of silver coins or bullions
  
• Portuguese introduced opium in China in 16^th century for medicinal purposes only (as emperor was aware of dangers of opium) but Western merchants started illegal trade of opium in China in mid-18^th century (started smuggling about 10,000 crates every year starting 1820s which after 15 years were 35,000 crates) – Chinese got addicted to opium
  
• In 1839 – there were 4 million opium smokers in China
  
• Returns from opium sale financed the tea purchases in China.
  
• Triangular trade – opium form India to China and tea from China to England
  
• Opium came from Bengal – In 1767 around 500 chests were exported which increased to 1500 in next 4 years and after 1870 it rose to 50,000 every year
  

Situation of growing poppy in India?

• Must be grown over best land, near villages and well manured
  
• Planting opium removed the cultivation area for pulses
  
• Cultivators owned no land – they had to rent land and the rents were very high
  
• Cultivation of opium was difficult process – delicate plant and long hours for nurturing
  
• Price to be paid was very low and it became unprofitable
  
• Cultivators were convinced by system of advances
  
• Peasants were hand to mouth and had nothing to survive on
  
• In 1780s peasants found headman (mahato) give advances for opium production
  
• Advances tempted the peasants to cultivate and pay loans later
  
• If loan was taken, cultivators were forced to grow opium on specified land and there was no option of planting the field with crop of his choice & had to accept the low price
  
• This could be resolved by increasing the price but Britishers were reluctant for that
  
• Price was so low that peasants agitated and refused to take advances – they started producing sugarcane and potatoes & sold to travelling traders who offered higher prices
  
• By 1773 – British in Bengal had monopoly to trade in opium but in 1820s found that opium production was declining but increasing in areas outside British control of Central India and Rajasthan
  
• Local traders were offering higher price for opium and trading to China but for Britishers this was illegal & they wanted to retain British Monopoly
  

• 
  NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 7: History and Sports: The Story of Cricket
  
  • History is not about dramatic events but cloth, food, music, medicines, literature and games
    
  • To establish friendship between nations and cricketers are seen as ambassadors of the country
    
  • 150 years ago, cricket was English game and was invented in England & was linked to culture of 19^th century Victorian society – girls were not allowed to play games
    
  • Cricket spread to colonies – cricket was linked with politics of colonialism and nationalism
    
  • Cricket as national game was result of decades of historical development
    

  Cricket Story

• Bat means stick or club
  
• By 17^th century it became a game popular for Sundays
  
• Till mid 18^th century – bats were same as hockey sticks
  
• Game to amuse, compete, stay fit and express loyalties
  
• Origin in England and then penetration to India
  
• Test Match – go for 5 days and still end in draw (lengthier than any other match) with 22 yards as length of pitch
  
• Football match is over in around 1.5 hours
  
• Other games lay down dimension of playing area but cricket does not (ground could be oval as in Adelaide and circular as in Chepauk, Chennai)
  
• A six run at Melbourne ground needs to clear much more ground than for the same shot at Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi
  
• Cricket gave itself rules and regulations so that it could be played in uniform and standardized way well before team games like soccer and hockey
  
• 1^st written “Laws of Cricket” in 1774 - principals shall choose from amongst the gentlemen present two umpires who shall absolutely decide all disputes. The stumps must be 22 inches high and the bail across them six inches. The ball must be between 5 and 6 ounces, and the two sets of stumps 22 yards apart. There is no limit on shape and size of bat.
  
• 1^st world cricket club was formed in Hambledon in 1760s & Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787.
  
• MCC published 1^st revision of laws and became guardian of cricket regulations – significant changes in second half of 18^th century (during 1760s-70s it was important to pitch the ball through air rather than roll it – it gave bowlers option of length, deception through air and better pace) and replacement of curved bat with straight bat. Weight of the ball was limited to between 5½ to 5¾ ounces & width of the bat to four inches
  
• In 1774: First leg-before law was published & third stump became common
  
• By 1780: 3 days became length of major match and saw creation of 1^st 6-seam cricket ball
  
• Changes in 19^th century – wide ball, circumference of ball, pads and gloves, introduction of boundaries and overarm bowling
  
• Game got codified after industrial revolution when workers were paid by hour/day/week
  
• Originally played on country commons (varied size) and unfenced public property
  
• Even after boundaries were written, their distance from wicket was not specified – as per the law, umpire shall agree with both captains on the boundaries of the playing area
  
• Bat, stump and bail – made of wood (blade of willow tree and handle of cane tree)
  
• Ball – leather, twine or cork
  
• Plastic, glass, fibre and metal are rejected
  
• Australian cricketer Dennis Lillee played an innings with an aluminium bat, only to have it outlawed by the umpires
  
• Invention of vulcanized rubber led to introduction of pads in 1848 and protective gloves; now helmets of metal and lightweight synthetic materials
  

Cricket in England

• Rich and poor enter separately in the field
  
• Rich played for pleasure called as amateurs (Gentleman) (for leisure and not enough money in game for rich to be interested in) – tend to be batsman – more energetic and hardworking and rules in their favor, they were captains
  
• Poor played for profession called as professionals (Players) (wages were paid as patronage, subscription or gate money) – game was seasonal
  
• Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton implies that Britain’s military success was based on the values taught to schoolboys in its public schools.
  
• Eton was the most famous of these schools. English boarding school was the institution that trained English boys for careers in the military, the civil service and the church, the three great institutions of imperial England.
  
• Thomas Arnold, headmaster of the famous Rugby School and founder of the modern public school system saw cricket and rugby not just as sports but as organized way of teaching (hierarchy, skills, code of honor and leadership qualities)
  
• Napoleonic wars were won because of economic contribution of the iron works of Scotland and Wales, mills of Lancashire and the financial houses of the City of London
  
• English led in trade which made Britain the leading power. The ruling power was superior of its young men, built in boarding schools, playing gentlemanly games like cricket.
  
• Dorothea Beale, principal of Cheltenham Ladies College was not in favor of girls taking part in sports
  

Spread of Cricket

• Cricket remained a colonial game limited to countries which were part of British Empire
  
• Cricket was established as popular sport by white settlers in colonies
  
• Playing cricket was a sign of superior social and racial status & pro-Caribbean population was discouraged from participating in organized club cricket (dominated by whites till 1930s)
  
• In end of 19^th century – 1^st non-white club in West Indies was established but members were light skinned mulattos
  
• It became popular in Caribbean (leaders like Forbes Burnham and Eric Williams saw chance for self-respect) – success in cricket meant racial equality and political progress
  
• West Indies won 1^st Test series in 1950 and celebrated it as national achievement of whites at par with Englishmen but had two ironies – West Indies team was captained by white player & it represented many dominions (self-governing areas) which later became independent countries. 1^st black captain of West Indies in 1960 was Frank Worrell
  
• After 1932 – national team was given right to represent India in test match
  

Cricket, Race & Religion

• Cricket was 1^st played in 1721 by English sailors in Cambay
  
• 1792 – 1^st cricket club established in Calcutta
  
• Cricket came as escape from the strangeness and discomfort of stay in India
  
• Indians started playing cricket mainly from small community of Zoroastrians, the Parsis (1^st Indian Community to westernize due to closeness of trade)
  
• 1^st Indian cricket club was Oriental Cricket Club in Bombay in 1848
  
• Parsi clubs were funded and sponsored by Tatas and Wadias
  
• Rivalry between the Parsis and racist Bombay Gymkhana had a happy ending for these pioneers of Indian cricket. Parsi team beat the Bombay Gymkhana at cricket in 1889, just four years after the foundation of INC in 1885 (Dadabhai Naoroji)
  
• By 1890s fund raising for Hindu and Islam Gymkhana. Colonial officials regarded religious communities as separate nationalities.
  
• Quadrangular played by four teams: the Europeans, the Parsis, the Hindus and the Muslims.
  
• Later became Pentangular when a fifth team was added, namely, the Rest, which comprised all the communities left over, such as the Indian Christians (Vijay Hazare, a Christian, played for the Rest).
  
• Distinguished editor of newspaper the Bombay Chronicle, S.A. Brelvi, famous radio commentator A.F.S. Talyarkhan and Mahatma Gandhi condemned the Pentangular as a communally divisive competition that was out of place in a time when nationalists were trying to unite India’s diverse population.
  
• Rival first class tournament on regional lines, National Cricket Championship (later Ranji Trophy) was established
  
• Palwankar Baloo, Dalit from Poona – greatest Indian slow bowler; he played for Hindus in Quadrangular but was never made captain. His younger brother Vithal became a captain of Hindus in 1923
  

Modern Transformations

• Cricket is dominated by tests and one day internationals
  
• C.K.Nayudu – outstanding Indian batsman of his time, played 1^st test matches against England in 1932 – he became India’s 1^st Test Captain
  
• India entered Test Cricket in 1932
  
• 1^st test was played b/w England and Australia when Australia was a white settler colony
  
• Regulation of international cricket remained the business of the Imperial Cricket Conference ICC.
  
• ICC renamed International Cricket Conference as late as 1965, was dominated by its foundation members, England and Australia, which retained the right of veto over its proceedings.
  
• Not till 1989 was the privileged position of England and Australia scrapped in favor of equal membership.
  
• England and other white commonwealth countries, Australia and New Zealand, continued to play Test cricket with South Africa, a racist state that practiced a policy of racial segregation (barred non-whites). India, Pakistan and West Indies boycotted South Africa but didn’t had necessary power in ICC to debar nation from test cricket.
  
• That only came to pass when political pressure to isolate South Africa applied by the newly decolonized nations of Asia and Africa combined with liberal feeling in Britain and forced English cricket authorities to cancel a tour by South Africa in 1970.
  
• 1970 – exclusion of South Africa from international cricket
  
• 1971 – 1^st one day international b/w England & Australia at Melbourne
  
• 1975 – 1^st world cup was staged
  
• 1977 – celebrated 100 years of test matches
  
• Kerry Packer – Australian TV tycoon started World Series Cricket and signed 51 world’s leading cricketers against the wish of national cricket board and staged unofficial test and cricket for 2 years - Colored dress, protective helmets, field restrictions, cricket under lights – cricket as marketable game with huge revenues
  
• This broadened social base of cricket – slowly matches in Sydney were watched in Surat
  
• ICC headquarters shifted from London to Dubai
  
• Pakistan has pioneered two great advances in bowling: the doosra and the ‘reverse swing’.
  
  • Doosra to counter aggressive batsmen with heavy modern bats who were threatening to make finger-spin obsolete (spins in the opposite direction to an off break and aims to confuse the batsman)
    
  • ‘Reverse swing’ to move the ball in on dusty, unresponsive wickets under clear skies (when the ball is old - natural outswinger will become an inswinger and vice versa)
    

Hockey

• Hockey can count the Scottish game called shinty, the English and Welsh game called bandy and Irish hurling.
  
• Hockey was introduced into India by the British army in colonial times
  
• 1^st hockey club in India was started in Calcutta in 1885-1886.
  
• India represented Olympic Games for hockey - first time in 1928. In the finals, India defeated Holland by three goals to nil.
  
• Under Dhyan Chand between 1928 and 1956, India won gold medals in six consecutive Olympic Games. India played 24 Olympic matches during this time, and won them all, scored 178 goals (at an average of 7.43 goals per match) and conceded only seven goals. The two other gold medals for India came in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the 1980 Moscow Olympics
  
  NCERT Class 9 History Chapter 8: Clothing a Social History
  
  
  • Clothes shape the notions of grace, beauty, modesty and shame.
    
  • Before democratic revolutions – dress was mainly in the regional code limited by type and cost
    
  • Spread of democratic ideals changed the way of dressing
    

  Sumptuary Laws

• Control the behaviour of those considered social inferiors, preventing them from wearing certain clothes, consuming certain foods and beverages (usually this referred to alcohol) and hunting game in certain areas.
  
• Number of clothes purchased per year was regulated by income and social rank
  
• Royal classes wore – ermine, fur, silk, velvet and brocade
  
• Members of the Jacobin clubs even called themselves the ‘sans culottes’ to distinguish themselves from the aristocracy who wore the fashionable ‘knee breeches’.
  
• Colors of France became popular – blue, white and red
  
• Political symbols – red cap of liberty, long trousers and the revolutionary cockade pinned on to a hat
  
• Aristocratic females wore corset to confine and shape oneself
  
• 19^th century England, velvet caps were made with material imported from France and Italy. England passed a law, which compelled all persons over six years of age, except those of high position, to wear woolen caps made in England, on Sundays and all holy days. This law remained in effect for twenty-six years and was very useful in building up the English woolen industry.
  
• End of sumptuary law – change in dress code & laws no longer barred people to dress in specific manner
  
• Men were expected to be serious, strong, independent and aggressive, women were seen as frivolous, delicate, passive and docile.
  
• America – again long skirts that swept the ground.
  
• Women should have small waist, bear pain and suffering, look docile but by 1830s women agitated against it. These clothing restrict body growth, hamper blood circulation, muscles remain underdeveloped and spines bent.
  
• In the 1870s, National Woman Suffrage Association headed by Mrs Stanton, and the American Woman Suffrage Association dominated by Lucy Stone both campaigned for dress reform. The argument was: simplify dress, shorten skirts, and abandon corsets.
  
• Amelia Bloomer, an American, was the first dress reformer to launch loose tunics worn over ankle-length trousers. The trousers were known as ‘bloomers’, ‘rationals’, or ‘knickerbockers’. The Rational Dress Society was started in England in 1881.
  
• Conservatives opposed the change. Change came as new material and technology.
  

New Times

• Before 17^th century – ordinary women had few cloth of linen, wool or flax. After 1600 and trade with India, Indian Chintzes (floral cotton cloth) reached many.
  
• During Industrial revolution, mass manufacturing of cotton started and it became accessible to many people.
  
• By early 20^th century, artificial fibers made clothes cheaper still and easier to wash and maintain.
  
• Clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.
  
• Until 1914, clothes were ankle length, as they had been since the 13^th century.
  
• By 1915, hemline of the skirt rose dramatically to mid-calf.
  
• Changes in war – women stopped wearing jewelry and luxurious clothes, clothes got shorter in WW-I due to need for war and employment in ammunition factories. Bright colors was replaced by sober colors, skirts got short and clothes became simpler for comfort and convenience
  

Transformation in Colonial India

Influence of west along with traditions of India

• People incorporated western clothes - Baggy trousers and the phenta (or hat) were added to long collarless coats, with boots and a walking stick to have a gentlemen look (mainly attractive to Dalit converted to Christianity)
  
• Against western clothes and made mockery of Bengali babus with western attire
  
• Mix of western (at work) and traditional (at home)
  
• India had its own strict social codes of food and dress.
  
• In May 1822, women of the Shanar (Nadars) caste (subordinate) were attacked by Nairs in public places in the southern princely state of Travancore, for wearing a cloth across their upper bodies.
  
• Dress reforms took place under Ayya Vaikunder. The abolition of slavery in Travancore in 1855. Finally, government issued another proclamation permitting Shanar women, whether Christian or Hindu, to wear a jacket, or cover their upper bodies.
  

Turban Versus Hat & Shoes

• Turban was protection from heat and sign of respectability and couldn’t be removed at will
  
• Hat was removed before social superiors
  
• British were often offended if Indians did not take off their turban when they met colonial officials. Many Indians on the other hand wore the turban to consciously assert their regional or national identity.
  
• British officials must remove footwear in court of kings
  
• In 1830, Europeans were forbidden from wearing Indian clothes at official functions, so that the cultural identity of the white masters was not undermined.
  
• In 1824 - 1828, Governor-General Amherst insisted that Indians take their shoes off as a sign of respect when they appeared before him, but this was not strictly followed.
  
• By mid-19^th century, when Lord Dalhousie was Governor- General, ‘shoe respect’ was made stricter, and Indians were made to take off their shoes when entering any government institution; only those who wore European clothes were exempted from this rule.
  
• In 1862, there was a famous case of defiance of the ‘shoe respect’ rule in a Surat courtroom. Manockjee Cowasjee Entee, an assessor in the Surat Fouzdaree Adawlut, refused to take off his shoes in the court of the sessions judge – judges insisted shoe removal but he was adamant.
  
• In India – shoes were removed because of dirt and filth in open area, shoes as polluting so shouldn’t be removed in public places
  

Designing National Dress

• Rabindranath Tagore suggested that instead of combining Indian and European dress, India’s national dress should combine elements of Hindu and Muslim dress. Chapkan (a long buttoned coat) was considered the most suitable dress for men.
  
• In the late 1870s, Jnanadanandini Devi, wife of Satyendranath Tagore, the first Indian member of the ICS, returned from Bombay to Calcutta. She adopted the Parsi style of wearing the sari pinned to the left shoulder with a brooch, and worn with a blouse and shoes. Was later adopted by Brahmo Samaji women and known as the Brahmika sari.
  
• Women of Gujarat, Kodagu, Kerala and Assam continue to wear different types of sari.
  

Swadeshi Movement

• India accounted for 1/4^th of the world’s manufactured goods in the seventeenth century. There were a million weavers in Bengal alone in the middle of the eighteenth century.
  
• Industrial Revolution in Britain mechanized spinning and weaving and greatly increased the demand for raw materials such as cotton and indigo, changed India’s status in the world economy.
  
• Peasants were forced to grow indigo and many Indian weavers were left without work
  
• People boycotted British goods and adopted khadi (coarse, expensive and difficult to obtain)
  
• Use of khadi was made a patriotic duty. Women were urged to throw away their silks and glass bangles and wear simple shell bangles. Rough homespun was glorified in songs and poems to popularize it.
  

Mahatma Gandhi

• He popularized spinning wheel and charkha and cloth made from homespun yarn
  
• Gujarati bania who wore dhoti and pyjama
  
• When went to England to study and later as lawyer to South Africa wore Western dress
  
• In Durban in 1913, Gandhi first appeared in a lungi and kurta with his head shaved as a sign of mourning to protest against the shooting of Indian coal miners
  
• On his return to India in 1915, he decided to dress like a Kathiawadi peasant.
  
• Only in 1921 did he adopt the short dhoti, the form of dress he wore until his death.
  
• On 22 September 1921, a year after launching the non-cooperation movement - experiment for a month or two
  
• Khadi, white and coarse, was to him a sign of purity, of simplicity, and of poverty.
  
• He wore the loincloth in Round Table Conference in 1931 & even before King George V at Buckingham Palace
  
• Motilal Nehru, a successful barrister from Allahabad, gave up his expensive Western-style suits and adopted the Indian dhoti and kurta but not of coarse cloth
  
• Babasaheb Ambedkar never gave up the Western-style suit. Many Dalits began in the early 1910s to wear three-piece suits, and shoes and socks on all public occasions
  
• Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Nehru, wore colored saris with designs
  
• Gandhi adopted turban to Kashmiri cap and finally Gandhi cap.
  
• With the rise of the Khilafat movement in the post-First World War years, the fez, a tasseled Turkish cap, became a sign of anti-colonialism in India. Later, fez was identified for Muslims
  

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