NCERT Class 10 History

NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 1: Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist – 4 prints on democratic and socialist republics
  
• 1^st print – people of Europe & America in long train – homage to Statue of Liberty (torch of enlightenment in one hand and Charter of Rights of man in another) with remains of symbols of absolutist (no restraints on power exercised) institutions
  
• Utopian (ideal society unlikely to actually exist) vision – people of world are grouped as nations, identified by flag and national costume
  
• Leading the procession are USA & Switzerland (already nation states) followed by France (revolutionary tricolor), Germany (black, red and golden flag). Till the time Sorrieu created the image Germans were not united nation and carried liberal hopes in 1848 for unification. Followed by Germans were peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
  
• Nationalism brought change in political and mental world of Europe – led to emergence of nation-state rather than multi-national dynastic empire. Under nation state – sense for common identity and shared history developed & was result of struggle, action of leaders and common people
  
• Renan in “What is Nation?” - A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. Its existence is a daily plebiscite (direct vote to accept or reject proposal)
  

French Revolution

• 1^st expression of nationalism in 1789
  
• Transfer from monarchy to body of French citizens – people constitute the nation and shape the destiny
  
• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights
  
• New French tricolor flag to replace former royal standard
  
• Estates General was elected and renamed as National Assembly
  
• Centralized administrative system with uniform laws for citizens within territory
  
• Abolish internal custom duties and dues
  
• Formulate uniform system of weights and measures
  
• French became a common language and regional dialects were discouraged
  
• Aim to liberate people of Europe from despotism
  
• Establishment of Jacobin clubs – French army moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in 1970s
  
• Developments under Napoleon – Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) did away with privileges based on birth, established equality and secured right to property. He abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom. He removed guild restriction and improved transportation.
  
• Initially French armies were welcomed in Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, Holland and Switzerland as harbinger of liberty but later turned hostile as there was increased taxation, censorship and forced conscription.
  

Image of Europe After Congress of Vienna, 1815

Image of Europe after Congress of Vienna, 1815

Europe after Congress of Vienna, 1815

Making of Nationalism in Europe

Developments:

• 1797 – Napoleonic Wars begin
  
• 1814-1815 – Fall of Napoleon
  
• 1821 – Greek struggle for independence
  
• 1848 – Revolutions in Europe – demand for nation states by Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs
  
• 1859-1870 – Unification of Italy
  
• 1866-1871 – Unification of Germany
  
• 1905- Slav nationalism gather force in Habsburg & Ottoman
  

Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) - many different regions and peoples. It includes:

• Alpine regions – Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland
  
• Bohemia - German-speaking
  
• Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia
  
• Hungary – half population spoke Magyar & others regional dialects
  
• Polish speaking people in Galicia
  

Peasants - Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania
Dominant class on this continent – Landed aristocracy united by common way of life, owned estates & town houses, spoke French for diplomacy, connected by marriage ties but was small in number
Peasantry was majority
West Europe – farming by tenants and small owners
East & Central Europe – vast estates cultivate by serfs
West & central Europe – growth of industrial production, emergence of commercial class
2^nd half of 18^th century – industrialization in England & in 19^th century in French and German states
Liberal Nationalism – liberalism (Latin – liber means free) means freedom for individual and equality of all before law. It stood as end of autocracy and clerical privileges & stressed inviolability of private property
Universal suffrage – France – initially only property owned man had right to vote. Under Jacobins, right was given to all adult males. Under Napoleon, righted were limited and reduced for women. Later opposition movements began.
Liberalism stood for freedom of market and abolition of state imposed restrictions on movement of goods and capitals under economic sphere. Demand for emerging middle class increased.
Under Napoleon – confederation of 39 states with own currency, weights and measures. Merchant had to pass numerous custom barriers and pay custom duties on all.
Elle (measurement for cloth) – In Frankfurt was 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz it was 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg it was 65.6 cm, in Freiburg it was 53.5 cm.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from more than 30 to 2. Idea was to bind economically, protect external interest and stimulate internal productivity.

Conservatism After 1815

• Conservatism is a philosophy that stresses on tradition, customs and prefers gradual change
  
• They believed modernization can strengthen traditional institutions like monarchy making state more effective
  
• Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe
  
• In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria who collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna under Congress hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich to draw Treaty of Vienna. Idea was to undo changes that happened under Napoleonic wars. Kept a check on expansion of French territory with Netherlands including Belgium in north & Genoa in south, Prussia on west & Austria controlled north Italy. Prussia given part of Saxony & Russia given part of Poland. Confederation of 39 states of German was untouched. Sole objective was to restore monarchies overthrown by Napoleon.
  
• This regime was autocratic, did not tolerate criticism & curbed activities that questioned legitimacy of autocratic government. Censorship laws were imposed to control what has been said in newspapers.
  

The Revolutionaries

• Secret societies sprang up to train revolutionaries and spread ideas, oppose monarchy after Vienna congress and fight for liberty and freedom.
  
• Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian: born in Genoa in 1807 & became member of Carbonari secret society. Was exiled in 1831 for revolution in Liguria. Formed 2 societies as Young Italy in Marseilles & Young Europe in Berne (1833). He explained God has intended nations to be natural units of mankind. So Italy must be forged with single unified republic. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
  

Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• Revolutionaries were educated middle class elite, professors, school teachers, clerks and commercial middle classes.
  
• France upheaval in 1830 – Bourbon kings restored to power were overthrown by liberal Louis Phillippe
  
• Metternich said ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.’
  
• July Revolution sparked uprising in Brussels that led to Belgium breaking away from UK of Netherlands.
  
• Greek war of independence – Greece was part of Ottoman Empire since 15^th century & struggle began in 1821. Nationalist in Greece got support from Greece living in exile. Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
  

Imagination & National Feeling

• Nationalism came across by idea of culture (poetry, story and music) along with wars and territorial expansion.
  
• Romanticism – criticized glorification of reason and science & focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Idea was to share collective heritage, common cultural past and basis of nation.
  
• French painter Delacroix – incident where 20,000 Greeks were said to have been killed by Turks on the island of Chios.
  
• Johann Gottfried Herder, German – discover German culture among common man (das volk) – by folk songs and dances spirit of nation (volksgeist) was popularized
  
• Collection of vernacular language and folklore to carry message to illiterate audiences
  
• Poland was partitioned by Great Powers (Russia, Britain & Austria) and feelings kept alive by music and language. Polish language was forced out and Russian became the common language. Members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings & seen as symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
  
• Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols
  
• Grimm’s Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm who published 1^st tales in 1812 & later published 33 volume dictionary of German language. French domination was considered a threat to German culture and their folktales were useful in building nationalistic feelings.
  

Hunger, Hardship & Popular Revolt

• 1830s – years of economic hardships in Europe
  
• 1^st half of 19^th century – increase in population in Europe
  
• Population migration to urban areas and increasing slums
  
• Stiff competition from cheap machine made imports
  
• Peasants struggled under burden of feudal dues and obligations where aristocracy was in power
  
• Rise of food prices and years of bad harvest aggravated the issue
  
• 1848 – Widespread food shortage, unemployment in Paris & Louis Phillippe was forced to flee. National assembly proclaimed a republic and granted suffrage to all men above 21 years and guaranteed right to work.
  
• 1845 – weavers in Silesia led revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave orders for finished product but drastically reduced payments.
  

1848: Revolution of Liberals

• Brought abdication of monarch and republic based on universal male suffrage
  
• Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification – constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association
  
• In Germany, German National Assembly was formed on 18^th May, 1848 with 831 elected representatives. They drafted a constitution for German nations to be headed by monarchy. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. Parliament was dominated by middle class who resisted workers’ demands. Assembly was disbanded and troops were called in.
  
• Women formed political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings but were denied suffrage rights. In Frankfurt parliament in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery
  
• Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political activist who founded a women’s journal and subsequently a feminist political association (awareness of women rights and interests)
  
• Monarchs realized that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries. After 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus serfdom and bonded labor were abolished both in Habsburg dominions and in Russia. Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
  

Making of Germany & Italy

• Liberal initiative to nation-building in Germany was repressed by monarchy and military & supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
  
• Prussia took leadership for national unification with Otto von Bismarck as the architect. 3 wars over 7 years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory & unification.
  
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony in Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles
  
• New state emphasized modernization of currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany
  

Image of Unification of Germany (1866-71)

Image of Unification of Germany (1866-71)

Italy Unified

• Italy had scattered dynasties and Habsburg Empire. In mid-19th century – it was divided in 7 states of which Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by Italian princely house.
  
• North was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of Bourbon kings of Spain
  
• Giuseppe Mazzini – unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy. Failure of uprisings in 1831 & 1848 meant Sardinia was now under King Victor Emmanuel II to unify Italy states for war. Unified Italy gave possibility for economic development and political dominance
  

Image of Italian States Before Unification, 1858

Image of Italian States before unification, 1858

• Chief Minister Cavour – led unification was neither revolutionary nor democrat. He spoke French better than Italian. In alliance with France in 1859, Sardinia defeated Austria. Garibaldi in 1860 marched to South Italy and Kingdom of Two Sicilies and removed Spanish rulers.
  
• In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. Much of Italy was illiterate and unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology. Supporter of Garibaldi had never heard about Italia and thought “La Talia” was wife of Emmanuel.
  
• Garibaldi was sailor. Joined Young Italy movement in 1834 with Mazzini. He lived in exile till 1848 in South America. In 1860, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Volunteers joined and were known as Red Shirts. In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed. In 1870, French withdrew forces from Rome and Papal States joined to Italy.
  

Case of Britain

• Nation state formation was not sudden but a long drawn out process. Prior to 18^th century there were ethnic groups like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish with their own culture and traditions. As it grew in wealth and power, influence extended to other nations.
  
• English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688
  
• Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ - England was able to impose its influence on Scotland
  
• British parliament was dominated by English members and Scotland’s culture was suppressed. Catholics from Scotland suffered repression. Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
  
• Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants to establish power over Catholic nation. Catholics were suppressed. After failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into UK in 1801.
  
• Symbols of the New Britain: British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language were actively promoted
  

Visualizing the Nation

• Nations were portrayed as females. Female figure became an allegory (abstract idea expressed through person or things) of the nation.
  
• French used female allegory to portray liberty (red cap or broken chains), justice (blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales) and republic ideas.
  
• In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty & Republic – the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade. Statues erected in public, also marks on coins and stamps were made.
  
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as German oak stands for heroism.
  

Image of Attribute and Significance

Image of Attribute And Significance

Nationalism and Imperialism

• By last quarter of 19^th century, nationalists groups became intolerant and raged war
  
• Most serious happened in Balkan after 1871
  
• Balkans - geographical and ethnic variation included Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro - people called as Slavs. Majority of Balkans was under Ottoman Empire. Spread of romantic nationalism & disintegration of Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
  
• Balkans placed claims of independence on nationality and used history to prove it.
  
• Intense rivalry among European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military & was seen in Balkans. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary were trying to control Balkan and led to 1^st WW. This nationalism and imperialism led Europe to disaster in 1914.
  
• Nations colonized by Europe began to oppose imperial domination.
  
• Anti-imperialist movements were nationalist and inspired by collective national unity.
  
• European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own specific variety of nationalism. But idea that societies should be organized into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.

NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 2: The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China

• Vietnam gained formal independence in 1945. Took another 3 decades for formal Republic of Vietnam to be formed
  
• Indo-China included Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Many people lived in this area under shadow of China.
  

Indo-China Included Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia

Image of Indo-China included Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Many people lived in this area under shadow of China

• North & central Vietnam maintained Chinese government and culture. It was linked to maritime silk route that brought ideas, goods and people.
  
• Connected to hinterland where non-Vietnamese people like Khmer Cambodians lived
  
• French controlled military and economic domination & reshaped culture. Nationalism emerged as fight against French. Landed in Vietnam in 1858 & established a strong grip by mid-1880s.
  
• After Franco-Chinese war, French assumed control over Tonkin and Anaam & French Indo-China was formed in 1887. French sought to consolidate and people in Vietnam reflected on the suffering.
  
• Francis Garnier, French explored Mekong & established colony in Tonkin in north. He attacked Hanoi, capital of Tonkin but was killed.
  
• French considered colonies necessary to supply natural resources and essential goods. They thought it was mission of advanced countries to bring benefits of civilization to backward people.
  
• Canals were built to increase cultivation, increase rice production and allow exports to international market. By 1931, it was 3^rd largest exporter of rice in world.
  
• Trans Indo-China rail network was made to connect south and north Vietnam and China & finally completed with link with Yunan in 1910. Second line linked Vietnam to Siam via Phnom Penh (capital of Cambodia)
  
• Paul Bernard – writer & policy maker believed that economies of colonies needs to be developed. Idea to acquire colony was to make profit. It living standards improved, people will buy more goods and led to market for French business. Vietnam witnessed high population, low agricultural productivity and extensive indebtedness amongst peasants. To reduce poverty and increase agricultural productivity reforms are required as Japan did in 1890s. Industrialization is required to create more jobs.
  
• Plantation crops included rice and rubber owned by French & small Vietnamese elite. These used indentured labor (worked as contract with no specific rights but employer had immense power). French were against industrialization.
  

Dilemma of Colonial Education

• French believed that Europe had developed the most advanced civilization.
  
• French wanted to educated local laborers but feared it they educated them, they will question the colonial domination. French citizen in Vietnam (colons) feared that the jobs would be lost, so they opposed policy that gave Vietnamese full access to French education.
  
• Elite Vietnamese used Chinese as a language. To consolidate their power, French had to counter Chinese influence.
  
• Emphasis on need for French as language of instruction – this would create Asiatic France tied to European France. This would create respect for sentiments and ideas for French
  
• Others suggested Vietnamese to be taught in lower classes and French in higher classes. Few who learnt French must be awarded and given French citizenship.
  
• Only Vietnamese elite could enroll in schools and could pass school leaving examination (around 2/3^rd students failed in final exam). In 1925 out of 17 million population only 400 passed.
  
• Textbooks glorified French and Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward with manual labour.
  
• Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a Western style education included science, hygiene and French (these classes were held in the evening and had to be paid for separately) and adoption of short haircut (traditionally Vietnamese have long hair)
  
• Vietnamese teachers in lower grades modified the text and criticized what was stated
  
• Vietnamese girl was asked to sit on back seat and give the seat to French – opened up protests & conflict
  
• By 1920s students formed political parties (like Party of Young Annan) & published journals like Annanese Student.
  
• Schools became center for political and cultural battles. French tried to change values and norms but Vietnamese intellectuals felt they were losing on territory and identity. Battle against French colonial education became part of battle against colonialism and independence
  

Timeline

• 1820: Nguyen Anh becomes emperor symbolizing the unification of the country under the Nguyen dynasty.
  
• 1867: Cochinchina (the South) becomes a French colony.
  
• 1887: Creation of the Indo-china Union, including Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, Cambodia and later, Laos.
  
• 1930: Ho Chi Minh forms the Vietnamese Communist Party.
  
• 1945: Vietminh start a general popular insurrection. Bao Dai abdicates. Ho Chi Minh declares independence in Hanoi (September 2).
  
• 1954: The French army is defeated at Dien Bien Phu.
  
• 1961: Kennedy decides to increase US military aid to South Vietnam.
  
• 1974: Paris Peace Treaty.
  
• 1975 (April 30): NLF troops enter Saigon.
  
• 1976: The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed.
  

Hygiene, Disease & Resistance

• Hanoi was rebuilt under French
  
• 1903 – plague affected Hanoi. French part was clean and beautiful with wide avenues and well laid sewer system while native quarter did not have any modern facilities with overflowing water in streets. Large sewers in modern part of city were breeding grounds for rats. Sewers acted as transport system and rats entered homes of French as well.
  
• Rat hunt started in 1902. French hired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught.
  
• Those who worked in sewer found that if they collected together they could negotiate better and collective bargaining started. Bounty was paid for the tail, so they just clipped the tail and released the rats to repeat the process. People also began raising rats to earn bounty.
  
• Bounty program was scrapped.
  

Religion and Anti-Colonialism

• Vietnam’s religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism (good conduct, practical wisdom and proper social relationships) and local practices. Christianity, introduced by French missionaries, was intolerant of this easygoing attitude.
  
• From 18^th century – many religious movements were hostile to Western presence. Early movement against French control and spread of Christianity was Scholars Revolt in 1868 (against Catholicism and French power)
  
• Uprising in Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where many Catholics were killed
  
• From 17^th to mid 18^th century – 3 lakh people were converted by Catholic missionaries.
  
• The elites in Vietnam were educated in Chinese and Confucianism.
  
• Hao Hao movement in 1939 in Mekong delta – It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the 19^th century. Its founder was Huynh Phu So who performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He also opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium. French tried to suppress him, called him Mad Bronze & sent him to mental asylum. But doctors who were to prove him insane became his followers & French doctors also declared him sane. Authorities exiled him to Laos and followers to concentration camps.
  

Vision of Modernization

Different viewpoints –

• Vietnamese tradition must be strengthened to resist domination of west
  
• Vietnam must learn from west while opposing foreign domination
  

Resistance to French domination was led by Confucian Phan Boi Chau – formed Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with Prince Cuong De as the head. He met Chinese reformer Liang Qichao in Yokohama in 1905 & influenced by him wrote “The History of the Loss of Vietnam” – became widely read bestseller in Vietnam and China – had 2 themes (loss of sovereignty & severing of ties with China)
Phan Chu Trinh - intensely hostile to the monarchy and opposed to the idea of resisting the French, aimed to establish democratic republic – he did not want a wholesale rejection of Western civilization & accepted ideas of liberty. Demanded French to set up legal and educational institutions and develop agriculture and industries.
Go East Movement – In 1907-08, 300 Vietnamese students went to Japan to acquire modern education with idea to drive away French from Vietnam, overthrow puppet rule & establish Nguyen dynasty – they looked for foreign arm and help. Japan’s victory over Russia in 1907 proved the military capabilities. Vietnamese students established Restoration Society in Tokyo but after 1908, Japanese Ministry of Interior clamped them down.
1911- Under Sun Yat Sen monarchy in China was overthrown & republic was established. Vietnamese students organised the Association for Restoration of Vietnam (Viet-Nam Quan Phuc Hoi). Objective changed from constitutional monarchy to democratic republic.

Communist Movement & Vietnamese Nationalism

• During Great Depression 1930s – price of rubber and rice fell leading to rural debt, unemployment and rural uprisings in Nghe An and Ha Tinh provinces (poorest with old radical traditions and were called as electric fuses – when system was under pressure, they were the first to blow)
  
• In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to establish Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party, later renamed Indo-Chinese Communist Party. Minh was inspired by militant demonstrations of European communist parties.
  
• In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial drive to control SE Asia.
  
• League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh) known as Vietminh was formed & it fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945. Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became Chairman.
  

New Republic

• French tried to gain control by using Bao Dai as puppet emperor. Vietminh were forced to retreat. 8 years after, French were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.
  
• Supreme French Commander of French armies, General Henry Navarre had declared confidently in 1953 that they would soon be victorious. But on 7 May 1954, Vietminh annihilated and captured more than 16,000 soldiers of the French Expeditionary Corps.
  
• In peace negotiations after French defeat, Vietnamese were persuaded to accept division & split of north and south took place. Ho Chi Minh was in power in north & Bao Dai in south. It turned Vietnam into a battle field. Bao Dai was overthrown by Ngo Dinh Diem (repressive & authoritarian – those who opposed were called communist and killed). Diem retained ordinance 10, French law that permitted Christianity & was opposed by National Liberation Front (NLF)
  
• NLF fought for unification of nation. US watched for alliance and was worried over unification and communist gaining so sent troops
  
• US entered war and from 1965 to 1972 over 3 million US personnel served in Vietnam. Despite good medical supplies, US casualties were high. US troops arrived with heavy weapons and backed bombers B52s. Chemical weapons like Napalm (organic compound to thicken gasoline for firebombs), Agent Orange and phosphorous bombs destroyed villages. Form US, many of those sent to fight didn’t belong to elite but were minorities & children of working class. US media criticized war.
  
• Films like Green Brets by John Wayne motivated men to die for war. Francis Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now (1979) reflected the moral confusion that the war had caused in the US.
  
• Minh - Minh became an active member of Commintern, meeting Lenin and other leaders. In May 1941, after 30 years abroad in Europe, Thailand and China, Minh returned to Vietnam & took name Ho Chi Minh (He Who Enlightens) in 1943. He became president of Vietnam Democratic Republic & died in 1969
  
• Minh would lead to domino effect (communist government established in other countries in the area).
  

Ho Chi Minh Trail

• Trail is footpath and roads used to transport men and material from north to south, improved from late 1950s. From 1967, 20,000 North Vietnamese troops came south each month. It had support bases and hospitals all the way. Supplies carried by porters who carried 25 kg on back & 70 kg on bicycles.
  
• Most of it was in Laos and Cambodia with branches in Vietnam but this was quickly rebuilt despite destruction by US.
  

Map of Laos and Cambodia with Branches

Map of Laos and Cambodia with branches

Nation & Its Heroes

• Women enjoyed equality mainly in lower classes but had limited freedom to determine future.
  
• In the 1930s, novel by Nhat Linh caused a scandal because it showed a woman leaving a forced marriage and marrying someone of her choice, someone who was involved in nationalist politics. This rebellion against social conventions marked the arrival of the new woman in Vietnamese society.
  
• 1913 – Phan Boi Chau wrote play based on lives of Trung Sisters who fought Chinese domination. Sisters were idealized and glorified
  
• Trieu Au – orphaned in childhood, left home, went to jungle and organized a large army & resisted Chinese rule. When her army was crushed, she drowned herself and became a sacred figure.
  
• Women were portrayed brave and dedicated. Nguyen Thi Xuan shot jet with 20 bullets. Women were represented as workers as well. As casualties increased in war, women were urged to join the struggle. Women joined resistance movement – nursed wounds, constructed underground tunnels & fought enemy.
  
• Women were seen in agricultural cooperatives, factories and production units.
  
• US – Vietnam War called as 1^st Television war as battle scenes were shown on daily basis.
  
• The scholar Noam Chomsky called the war ‘the greatest threat to peace, to national self-determination, and to international cooperation’.
  
• Peace settlement was signed in Paris in January 1974. This ended conflict with the US but fighting between Saigon regime and NLF continued. NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and unified Vietnam.
  

 NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 3: Nationalism in India

• Understanding who they were, their identity, and belongingness
  
• New symbols, icons, songs and ideas, redefining boundaries
  
• Nationalism is connected to anti-colonialism & shared bonds between different groups
  
• Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge groups within one movement – but conflicts arose
  
• 1^st WW – economic and political situation, huge defence expenditure, war loans, increased taxes, custom duties and income tax, doubling of prices
  
• In villages – failed crops, forced recruitment in army & influenza epidemics. 12-13 million people perished due to famines and epidemics
  
• Gandhi returned to India in Jan 1915 from South Africa (workers from Newcastle to Transvaal against racist laws) – started satyagraha (power of truth and search for truth) & dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians
  
• 1916 – Champaran, Bihar against oppressive plantation
  
• 1917 – Kheda, Gujarat – crop failure and plague – relaxation on revenue collection
  
• 1918 – Organize Ahmedabad textile mill workers
  

Rowlatt Act

• Rowlatt Act (1919) – Nationwide protest against it. Passed by Imperial Legislative Council despite united opposition. It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
  
• Gandhi called for hartal on 6^th April, rallies organized, local leaders were picked from Amritsar and Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi. Martial law imposed and General Dyer took the command. Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place – some against oppressive government policy and others to attend Baisakhi fair
  
• Dyer wanted to create a moral effect in mind of satyagarhis for feeling of terror
  
• Humiliation of people: satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do salaam (salute) to all sahibs; people were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed.
  
• Movement was called off. It was mainly based in cities and towns
  

Khilafat Issue –

• 1^st WW witnessed defeat of Ottoman Empire – harsh treaty on Khalifa (Ottoman emperor). To defend Khalifa, Khilafat Committee formed in March 1919 – Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali discussed issue with Gandhi
  
• Calcutta Session of Congress in Sept 1920 – start non-cooperation with Khalifat. Gandhi’s book Hind Swaraj explained British rule survived in India only because of cooperation of Indians
  
• Surrender of titles, boycott of civil services, army, police, court, legislative council, schools and foreign goods
  
• Congress session at Nagpur in December 1920, a compromise was worked out and the Non-Cooperation program was adopted.
  
• Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in Jan. 1921 – call of Swaraj
  
• Council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras, where the Justice Party (party of non-Brahmans), felt that entering the council was one way of gaining some power
  
• Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed. Import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs. 102 crore to Rs. 57 crore.
  
• Khadi was more expensive than mill produced cloth and poor could not afford to buy. Establish Indian institutions but these were slow to come so people started joining back work in government courts
  
• Countryside developments – Awadh (Baba Ramchandra – sanyasi who earlier had been to Fiji as indentured labourer) – against talukdars and landlords who were demanding high rents, begar (forced laborer without payment) – demand for reduction of revenue, abolition of beggar and social boycott of oppressive landlords
  
• Nai –dobhi bandhs were organized by panchayat. Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed with JL Nehru and Baba Ramchandra – 300 branches were set up around region
  
• Effort of Congress was to integrate Awadh peasant struggle into wider struggle - houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over. Local leaders told peasants that no taxes were to paid and land to be redistributed
  
• Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh – militant guerilla movement started in 1920s – against colonial govt. that closed large forest area, prevented people from entering forest and collecting fuelwood – felt that their traditional rights were denied – led by Alluri Sitaram Raju (make astrological predictions, heal people and could survive bullet shot). He was an incarnation of God – persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking. Raju was captured and executed in 1924 but became a folk hero.
  
• Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission – workers started to leave considering Gandhi Raj has come and everyone would be given the land in their own villages.
  
• Gandhi raised slogan “Swatantra Bharat” – emotionally relating to all India agitation
  
• After Chauri Chaura incident in Gorakhpur – Gandhi called off Non Cooperation movement
  
• Feb 1922 – Non Cooperation movement was withdrawn as it was turning violent & some leaders wanted to participate in elections to provincial councils set up by Government of India Act, 1919 – need to oppose British Council
  
• CR Das & Motilal Nehru formed Swaraj Party – to argue for return to council politics
  
• JL Nehru & SC Bose – pressed for radical mass agitation and full independence
  

Factors affecting Indian Politics late 1920s

• Effect of worldwide economic depression, agricultural prices fell from 1926 & collapsed after 1930. Peasants found hard to sell harvest and pay revenue
  
• Tory government in Britain constituted Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon – functioning of constitutional system & no single Indian in the commission – in 1928 was greeted with “Go Back Simon”
  

Irwin in 1929 announced dominion status for India and Round Table conference to discuss constitution.
Radicals became assertive and liberals lost influence
In Dec 1929 – Lahore Congress formalized demand for “Purna Swaraj” or full independence & declared 26 Jan 1930 as Independence Day

Salt March & Civil Disobedience Movement

• 1928 – Hindustan Socialist Republican Army was founded with Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das and Ajay Ghosh as the leaders.
  
• 1929 - Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly & also attempt to blow the train in which Irwin was travelling – idea was “Inquilab Zindabad”
  
• 31 Jan 1930 – Letter to Irwin with 11 demands – bringing all classes under united campaign – demand to abolish salt tax (monopoly over salt production by Britisher was most oppressive face of British rule)
  
• If demands are not fulfilled, Congress would launch
  

Civil Disobedience Movement

• Salt March – with 78 volunteers for 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi – 24 days and walked 10 miles a day
  
• Not only refuse cooperation but also break laws – started manufacturing salt, peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes, officials resigned & forest people violated forest laws (going to reserved forest to collect wood and graze cattle)
  
• Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested in April 1930 in Peshwar – huge demonstrations
  
• Gandhi was arrested and industrial workers in Sholapur were attacked – around 1 lakh people were arrested
  
• Movement called off and Gandhi entered Irwin pact on March 1931 & Gandhi consented to participate in 2^nd Round Table Conference in London (returned disappointed) & government agreed to release political prisoners
  
• Back in India, Ghaffar Khan and JL Nehru were in jail, congress declared illegal and measures were imposed to prevent demonstrations. Civil disobedience movement was re-launched but lost its momentum by 1934
  
• Patidars in Gujarat & Jats in UP – were active; rich peasants; producers of commercial crops; cash income disappeared & found it impossible to pay government revenue demand. Refusal of government to reduce revenue demand led to resentment. Fight was struggle against high revenue. Movement called off in 1931 with revision of revenue rates and was restarted in 1932 but many refused to participate
  
• Peasants joined radical movements led by Socialist and Communists
  
• In 1^st WW – Indian merchants & industrialists made great profits and got powerful – demanded protection against import of foreign goods & rupee- sterling foreign exchange ratio would discourage imports - they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927 led by Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla – gave financial assistance and refused to buy and sell imported goods – they were apprehensive of militant activities and worried about prolonged disruption of business
  
• Strikes of railway workers in 1930 and dockworkers in 1932. In 1930 – Chottanagpur tin workers wore Gandhi caps and protested.
  
• Large scale women participation was seen – protest march, manufactured salt, picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Women were from high caste families in urban area & in rural from rich peasant households
  
• Gandhi – duty to women to look after home, be good mother and good wives
  
• Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority
  

Limits of Civil Disobedience

• Untouchables or Dalits or oppressed were not moved by abstract ideas of swaraj
  
• Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus
  
• Gandhi believed that swaraj would not come for 100 years if untouchability was not eliminated – called them harijans (son of god). He himself cleaned toilets to dignify role of bhangi & persuaded upper caste to change their heart and give up “sin of untouchability”
  
• Demand rose for separate electorate & reserved seats in educational institutions for untouchables
  
• Dalit participation in Civil Disobedience movement was limited in Maharashtra and Nagpur (as organization was very strong)
  
• BR Ambedkar – organized dalits into Depressed Classes Association in 1930 – clashed with Gandhi at 2^nd Round Table Conference for a separate electorate for dalits.
  
• Gandhi believed separate electorate would slowdown the growth. Ambedkar accepted Gandhi’s position and led to Poona Pact of Sept. 1932 - It gave Depressed Classes reserved seats in provincial and central legislative council but they were to be voted in general elections
  
• Muslims felt alienated and from mid-1920s Congress came to be openly associated with Hindus like Hindu Mahasabha – led to worsened relations between Hindus and Muslims – provoked communal riots
  
• Muslim League and Congress tried to renegotiate an alliance and in 1927 it appeared that such unity could be forged – differences were over representation in future assemblies that were to be elected
  
• Jinnah (leader of Muslim League) - willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal and Punjab).
  
• Hope to resolve issue disappeared when MR Jayakar of Hindu Mahasabha opposed to compromise
  
• Many expressed concern about minority status of Muslims in India
  

Spread of Nationalism

• By history, fiction, folklore. Songs, popular prints and symbols
  
• Nation symbolized as figure or image – identity of India as Bharat Mata (image 1^st by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay – he later wrote Vande Mataram & novel Anandmath)
  
• Abindranath Tagore painted Bharatmata as calm, composed, divine and spiritual
  
• Folk tales talked about traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces
  
• In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India.
  
• During Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims.
  
• By 1921, Gandhi had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolor (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.
  
• Reinterpretation of history – British believed Indians as backward and primitive and incapable of doing something. Indian talked about the glorious past – developments in science, math, religion, culture, craft and trade
  
• Bring together Indians for a common ground for struggle to channelize people’s grievances into organized movementNCERT Class 10 History Chapter 4: The Making of a Global World
  
  • History of trade, migration, work & capital movement
    
  • Travelers, traders and priests carried goods, money, value, skills, idea and innovation along with diseases (spread from 7^th century)
    
  • 3000 BCE – active trade linked Indus valley with West Asia. Cowries (seashells as currency) from Maldives to China and East Africa
    

  Silk Route

• West bound Chinese silk cargo – knitting regions of Asia, linking to Europe and North Africa
  
• Chinese pottery travelled same route as textiles and species from India & SE Asia
  
• In return – gold and silver flowed from Europe to Asia
  
• Christion missionaries travelled this route to Asia & Buddhism also spread from here to several directions
  

Image of Silk Route

Image of Silk Route

Food

• Noodles travelled from west to China & became spaghetti
  
• Arab traders took pasta to 5^th century Sicily
  
• Foods like potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chilies, sweet potatoes were not known to our ancestors five centuries ago – introduced after Columbus accidently discovered Americas (many common food came from America)
  
• Ireland’s poorest peasants, dependent on potatoes that with famine of mid-1840s many died of starvation (10 lakh people died)
  

Conquest, Disease and Trade

• Pre-modern world shrank in 16^th century after European sailors found sea route to Asia & reached America (before this America was cut off from rest of the world)
  
• India subcontinent was central to flow and crucial point in networks
  
• Silver from Peru & Mexico enhanced Europe’s wealth
  
• 17^th century Europe – South America’s wealth – search to El Dorado (fabled city of gold)
  
• Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonization of America – under by mid-16^th century – conquest not by firepower but by germs of smallpox (due to long isolation, America’s inhabitants had no immunity against European germs) & it proved to be a deadly killer. Once introduced it spread into continent even before Europeans reached and paved way for conquest
  
• In Europe - Poverty and hunger was common, crowded cities and widespread diseases with religious conflicts and dissenters (those who refuse to accept) & many fled to America. Plantations worked by slaves captured in Africa were growing cotton & sugar for European markets
  
• Till 18^th century – China and India were world’s richest countries & were preeminent in Asian trade
  
• From 15^th century – China restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. China’s reduced role and rising importance of America moved center of world trade westwards & Europe became center of world trade
  

19^th Century (1815-1914)

• 3 trade – flow of trade, labor and movement of capital for short term and long term investments – affected people more deeply (labor migration was restricted than goods and capital flows)
  
• Traditionally self-sufficiency in food was liked but in 19^th century – for Britain it meant lower living standards and social conflicts
  
• Population increased – led to increase in demand and rise in food prices, restriction on import of corn by government (Corn Laws). Industrialists forced abolition of Corn Laws as they were unhappy with high food prices
  
• Now, food import became cheaper that local manufacturing – leading to vast uncultivated land and men and women out of work. They flocked to cities and migrated overseas
  
• As food prices declined, consumption rose. After mid 19^th century – faster industrial growth with higher incomes and more food imports. In Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia – lands were cleared and food production expanded to meet British demand
  
• Railways required to link agriculture to ports, built new harbors, expand old ones, build homes and settlement that required capital (from financial centers like London) and labor (migration – 50 million people emigrated from Europe to America & Australia in 19^th century)
  
• Food started to come from long distances, not grown by peasants tilling the own land but from workers who came to farm from a forest. Role of transportation increased
  
• In West Punjab – irrigation canals were built to transform semiarid areas into fertile belt that could grow wheat and cotton for export. Canal colonies (area irrigated by new canals) – settled by peasants from other parts of Punjab
  
• This happened also for cotton in British textile mills or rubber
  
• Between 1820 and 1914 world trade is estimated to have multiplied 25 to 40 times. Nearly 60% of this trade comprised ‘primary products’ – agricultural products such as wheat and cotton, and minerals such as coal.
  

Role of Technology

• Inventions – railways, steamships and telegraph – new investment & improved transport (fast railways, lighter wagons and larger ships)
  
• Trade in meat – till 1870s animals were shipped live from America to Europe & then slaughtered – took lot of space, many lost weight, ill health and died or became unfit to eat & hence was expensive luxury. Refrigerated ships enabled transport of perishable foods over long distances (now animals were slaughtered at the starting point in America, Australia or New Zealand and then transported as frozen meat) – it reduced shipping cost and meat prices in Europe & people (even poor) could add meat along with bread and potatoes
  
• Cattle were traded at fairs, brought by farmers for sale. One of the oldest livestock markets in London was at Smithfield.
  

Late 19^th Century – Colonialism

• Trade flourished and market expanded – it meant loss of freedom and livelihoods.
  
• European conquests produced many painful economic, social and ecological changes
  
• In 1885 - big European powers met in Berlin to complete the carving up of Africa between them (mainly Britain and France); new colonial powers were Belgium and Germany. US became colonial power in 1890s by taking colonies earlier held by Spain
  
• Stanley (journalist and explorer sent by New York Herald to found missionary Livingston) went with arms, mobilized local hunters, warriors and laborers to help him, fought with local tribes, investigated African terrains, and mapped different regions
  

Map of Colonial Africa at the End of the Nineteenth Century

Map of colonial Africa at the end of the nineteenth century

Rinderpest (Cattle Plague)

• In 1890s – rinderpest affected people – is example of European imperial impact on colonized societies
  
• Historically, Africa had abundant land & small population and people worked for wage. If African had land and livestock – there was no reason to work for wages
  
• Late 19^th century – Europeans were attracted to Africa due to vast land and mineral resources with hope to establish plantation and mines to produce crops (but there was shortage of labor willing to work for wages)
  
• Employers tried many methods like heavy taxes that could only be paid by working for wages on plantation; changes in inheritance law so that only 1 member could inherit land and push others into labor market; confine mineworkers to compounds and not allow them to move freely
  
• Rinderpest in 1880s – from infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed Italian soldiers invading Eriteria in East Africa. It moved like forest fire and reached Africa’s Atlantic coast in 1892 & Cape 5 years later and killed 90% cattle
  
• Planters, mine owners and colonial governments now successfully monopolized what scarce cattle resources remained, to strengthen their power and to force Africans into the labor market
  

Indentured Labor Migration from India

• Indentured labor (bonded laborer under contract to work for an employer for a specific amount of time, to pay off his passage to a new country or home)
  
• Faster economic growth with great misery – mixed with higher income and poverty and technological advances
  
• 19^th century – Indian and Chinese labor in plantation, mines and construction sites. Indentured labor where promised return travel to India after they worked 5 years on employer’s plantation. They came mainly from east UP, Bihar, Central India and dry regions of Tamil Nadu
  
• In Mid-19^th century – regions of India mentioned above experienced cottage industries decline, increased land rent and clearing land for mines and plantation – these affected lives of poor as they failed to pay rent, became indebted and were forced to migrate mainly to Caribbean islands (mainly Trinidad, Guyana and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji. Tamils went to closer Ceylon & Malaya. Some to tea plantations in Assam.
  
• Recruitment was done by agent who got commission. Agents gave false information about final destination and tempted migrants by false information.
  
• 19^th century indenture were new system of slavery – harsh living conditions with few legal rights – workers found their way as some escaped to wilds & others followed collective self-expression
  
• In Trinidad, annual Muharram procession was transformed into riotous carnival called ‘Hosay’ (for Imam Hussain) in which workers of all races and religions joined.
  
• Protest religion of Rastafarianism (made famous by the Jamaican reggae star Bob Marley) is also said to reflect social and cultural links with Indian migrants to the Caribbean.
  
• ‘Chutney music’, popular in Trinidad and Guyana, is another creative contemporary expression of the post-indenture experience – things from different places got mixed, lose original characteristics and became new.
  
• VS Naipaul (Nobel Prize winner), cricketer Shivnarine Chanderpaul and Ramnaresh Sarwan were descendants of indentured laborers migrated from India
  
• Nationalists leaders started to oppose this system and was abolished in 1921. Descendants of Indian indentured workers as coolies remained uneasy minority in Caribbean. Novels of Naipaul capture sense of loss and alienation.
  

Entrepreneurs

• Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars bankers and traders who financed export agriculture in Central & SE Asia by own funds or that borrowed from European banks by sophisticated system of transfer of money over long distances
  
• Hyderabadi Sindhi traders from 1860s established flourishing emporia at busy ports worldwide, selling local and imported curios to tourists
  

Trade & Global System

• Initially fine cotton from India was exported to Europe but with industrialization British cotton expanded. There was need to protect local industries and restrict cotton imports & tariff imposed on imported cloth from Britain.
  
• Indian textile faced stiffed competition in other international markets as well – cotton declined from 30% in 1800 to 15% in 1815 & 3% in 1870s
  
• Export of raw material increased from 5% to 37% between 1812 and 1871, indigo was exported, opium shipments to China (India was single largest exporter)
  
• British goods flooded Indian markets; foodgrains and raw material export from India to Britain increased
  
• Value of Britain exports were higher than Britain imports and Britain had a trade surplus – this surplus was used to balance deficit in other nations from where imports were higher – this is how multilateral settlement works and it allows one country’s deficit with another country to be settled by its surplus with a third country
  
• Trade surplus helped pay - private remittances home by British officials and traders, interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions of British officials in India
  

Trade Routes at the End of the Seventeenth Century

Map of trade routes that linked india to the world at the end of the seventeenth century

Inter-War Economy

• 1^st WW was mainly fought in Europe but impacts felt across the world – lasted for over 4 years, started in 1914
  
• War was Allies (Britain, France and Russia, later joined by the US) versus Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey)
  
• It involved world’s leading industrialist nations & was considered first modern industrial war with use of machine guns, tanks, aircrafts and chemical weapons – many soldiers were recruited – total 9 million deaths and 20 million were injured – many of those were the men of working age
  
• Abled bodied workforce reduced with fewer numbers in family, household income declined after war
  
• Industries were restructured to make war related goods
  
• Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks and public and US transformed from international debtor to creditor while Britain was under external debt
  
• Britain was world’s leading economy in the pre-war period but due to preoccupation in war, industries developed in India and Japan. Britain found hard to recapture the earlier position and compete with Japan internationally
  
• After war, production contracted and unemployment increased – led to job losses (in 1921 – one of every five worker was out of work)
  
• Before war, Eastern Europe was supplier of wheat to world but was disrupted during war and wheat production in Canada, America and Australia expanded
  
• After war, Eastern Europe revived but grain prices fell, rural income declined and farmers were into debt
  

Rise of Mass Production & Consumption

• In US recovery was quicker with strong growth in 1920s was due to mass production
  
• Henry Ford adapted the assembly line of a Chicago slaughterhouse to new car plant in Detroit (faster and cheaper production) – workers were to repeat single task mechanically and continuously & led to increased output per worker. Cars came off at 3 minutes interval.
  
• T-Model Ford was the world’s first mass-produced car
  
• Initially workers could not take the stress at assembly line and so they quit in large number but Ford doubled the wages and banned trade unions to operate in his plants – he recovered cost of wages by speeding assembly line and forcing them to work harder & was described as “best cost cutting decision”
  
• It spread in Europe with lower cost and prices and more workers could now afford to purchase durable consumer goods like cars (production-increased form 2 million in 1919 to 5 million in 1929)
  
• Rise in purchase of refrigerators, washing machines, radios, gramophone players, all through a system of ‘hire purchase’ (i.e., on credit repaid in weekly or monthly instalments)
  
• Housing and consumer boom of the 1920s created the basis of prosperity in the US
  
• In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world and became the largest overseas lender
  

Great Depression

• Began around 1929 and lasted till mid 1930s
  
• Decline in production, employment, incomes and trade
  
• Agricultural economies were worst affected, agricultural income declined and farmers tried to expand production, this brought large volume of produce to market which reduced prices further
  
• In 1^st half of 1928 – overseas loans in US was $1 billion, year later it was $0.25 billion – countries dependent on US loan faced acute crisis – this led to failure of banks in Europe and collapse of currencies like British pound and sterling
  
• US doubled import duties which was again blow to world trade
  
• US banks also slashed domestic lending and called back loans. Farms could not sell their harvests, households were ruined, and businesses collapsed – with falling income people were forced to give up home, consumer durables and cars; unemployment soared and US banking system collapsed & bankruptcy was declared by many banks - by 1933 over 4,000 banks had closed and between 1929 and 1932 about 110, 000 companies had collapsed
  
• By 1935 – modest economic recovery started
  

India and Great Depression

• India’s export and imports halved between 1928 and 1934 & wheat prices fell by 50%
  
• Peasants, framers suffered more, agricultural prices fell, and colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands – peasants producing for world market were worst hit
  
• Jute in Bengal – grew raw jute in Bengal for exports as gunny bags; as gunny bags export collapsed prices fell by 60% for raw jute – peasants who borrowed went into greater debt – savings was used, land was mortgaged and jewelry was sold
  
• During this time, Indian export for gold increased and economist Keynes believed that Indian gold export promoted global economic recovery
  
• Urban people in India with fixed income and salaries found themselves at better off position
  
• 2^nd WW – after 2 decades of WW I – between Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the US) for 6 years on land, sea and air – 60 million people were killed (3% of world population) – many civilians died due to war related causes - cities destroyed, economic devastation and social disruption occurred
  

Two crucial influences shaped post-war reconstruction.

• US’s emergence as the dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world.
  
• Dominance of the Soviet Union - It had made huge sacrifices to defeat Nazi Germany, and transformed itself from a backward agricultural country into a world power
  

Lessons from inter-war period

• Industrial society based on mass production cannot survive unless there is mass consumption (which requires high and stable income and stable employment)
  
• Government must step in to minimize fluctuations in price, output and employment
  
• Goal of full employment could only be achieved if governments had power to control flows of goods, capital and labor.
  

Idea was to preserve economic stability and full employment – its framework was agreed by United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA

Bretton Woods Institutions

• Bretton Woods Conference established IMF – to deal with external surplus and deficit of member nations
  
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (or World Bank as was known) was set up to finance postwar reconstruction
  
• IMF & World Bank were called Bretton Woods Twins – both commenced financial operations in 1947 – decisions controlled by western industrial nations. US has an effective right of veto over key IMF and World Bank decisions
  
• The post-war international economic system is also often described as the Bretton Woods system
  
• The international monetary system is the system linking national currencies and monetary system.
  
• Bretton Woods system was based on fixed exchange rates. In this system, national currencies, for example the Indian rupee, were pegged to the dollar at a fixed exchange rate. The dollar itself was anchored to gold at a fixed price of $35 per ounce of gold.
  
• It led to growth of trade and income for Western nations and Japan – trade grew by 8% between 1950 and 1970 and incomes at nearly 5% & unemployment was less than 5%
  
• Worldwide spread of technology and enterprise – investment in capital, import of industrial plant and equipment was done
  
• When colonies of Asia and Africa liberated – poverty & lack of resources. IMF & World Bank were meant to meet financial needs of industrialized nations. As Europe and Japan rapidly rebuilt their economies, they grew less dependent on the IMF and the World Bank. Thus from the late 1950s the Bretton Woods institutions began to shift their attention more towards developing countries
  
• New independent countries faced issues of coming out of poverty – even after decolonization their economies were controlled by colonial powers. Large corporations like US managed to exploit resources of developing nations cheaply
  
• Developing nations organized themselves into group of 77 nations or G-77 for New International Economic Order (NIEO) –system that would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access for their manufactured goods in developed countries’ markets
  
• MNCs – companies that operate in many nations at a time – 1^st established in 1920s – spread worldwide in 1950s and 60s - high import tariffs imposed by different governments forced MNCs to locate their manufacturing operations and become ‘domestic producers’ in as many countries as possible
  

End of Bretton Woods

• From the 1960s the rising costs of its overseas involvements weakened the US’s finances and competitive strength
  
• US dollar was no longer a principal currency – fixed exchange rate system (government intervene to prevent movement) ended and floating exchange rate (based on demand and supply of currency in international market) started
  
• Earlier, developing countries could turn to international institutions for loans and development assistance. But now they were forced to borrow from Western commercial banks and private lending institutions. This led to periodic debt crises in the developing world, and lower incomes and increased poverty, especially in Africa and Latin America.
  
• Unemployment started to rise from 1970s and rose till 1990s – MNCs started to shift production to low wage Asian nations
  
• China – cutoff from post war economy since 1949; new economic policies in China and collapse of Soviet Union & communism in East Europe brought backfold into economy
  
• Low wages in China made it destination for investment – stimulated world trade and capital flows
  
  NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 5: The Age of Industrialization
  
  
  

  

  Image of Dawn of the Century

  Image of Dawn of the Century

• Music publisher ET Paull’s book – “Dawn of the Century” – goddess like figure bearing flag of new century on wheels with wings symbolizing time. Behind her are signs of progress – railway, camera, machines etc.
  
• 2 Magicians in Inland Printers - Aladdin is shown as representing the East and the past, the mechanic stands for the West and modernity
  

Image of Two Magicians

Image of Two Magicians

• Industrialization focused on growth of factory and industrial workers as factory workers
  
• Before factories there was proto-industrialization (merchants in 17^th & 18^th century moved to countryside and persuaded peasants to produce for international market) – with expansion of trade and new colonies – demand for goods increased
  
• This expansion was not possible in towns as urban crafts and trade guilds were powerful – associations trained craftspeople, regulated price and restricted new entry so new merchants went to countryside
  
• In countryside – open fields were disappearing and commons were enclosed; those who gathered firewood and hay were now looking for alternate income; income from proto-industrialization supplemented agricultural income
  
• Merchants were based in towns but work was done in countryside - Merchant clothier in England purchased wool from a wool stapler, and carried it to the spinners; yarn (thread) that was spun was taken in subsequent stages of production to weavers, fullers, and then to dyers. The finishing was done in London (became finishing center) before the export. Each merchant had around 20-25 workers at each stage (in all around 100 across all stages)
  

Coming of Factories

• Earliest factories in England in 1730s. In late 18^th century – factories multiplied
  
• Cotton production boomed in late 19^th century - In 1760 Britain was importing 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton & by 1787 this import soared to 22 million pounds
  
• Inventions increased efficiency at each stage - carding, twisting, spinning, and rolling – enhanced output per worker with stronger yarn
  
• Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill, now new machines came up in mills with management under one roof and careful supervision on quality and labor regulations
  
• In early 19^th century – factories became integral part of English landscape with concentration on new mills; production in bylanes and workshops continued
  

Pace of Industrial Change

• Most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. Cotton was leading industrial sector till 1840s. Iron & steel demand increased with expansion of railways from 1840s in Britain and 1860s in colonies. By 1873, Britain exported iron of Pound 77 billion which was double that of cotton
  
• New industries could not displace traditional industries – by end of 19^th century – less than 20% in advanced industrial sectors. Textile was dynamic sector and majority produced in domestic units
  
• Pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal industries. Small innovations were basis of growth in non-mechanized sectors
  
• Technological changes occurred slowly and did not spread dramatically, new technology was expensive and people were cautious about using it; repairs were costly
  
• Steam engine: James Watt improved steam engine produced by Newcomen and patented the new engine in 1781. His industrialist friend Mathew Boulton manufactured the new model but for years he could find no buyers. In early 119^th century, there were no more than 321 steam engines all over England. Of these, 80 were in cotton industries, nine in wool industries, and the rest in mining, canal works and iron works. Steam engines were not used in any of the other industries
  
• Mid-19th century – workers were not machine operators but traditional craftsperson
  

Hand Labor and Steam Power

• No shortage of labor and poor peasants moved from countryside for job search
  
• With lots of labor, wages are low – so they did not want to introduce machines to get rid of labor
  
• For some industries, labor was seasonal (gas work and breweries) – more labor in peak demand in cold months
  
• Bookbinders and printers required extra labor during Christmas season; again ship repair in winters required labor
  
• Machines were oriented to producing uniforms, standardized goods for a mass market but the demand was for intricate designs and specific shapes
  
• Mid-19^th century – 500 varieties of hammers and 45 kinds of axes – required human intervention
  
• In Victorian Britain, upper classes – aristocrats and bourgeoisie – preferred things produced by hand. Handmade products came to symbolize refinement and class. They were better finished, individually produced, and carefully designed. Machine goods were for exports.
  
• Where labor availability was issue, machines were preferred as in 19^th century America
  

Life of Workers

• Many went to cities for jobs
  
• Jobs were easy if relatives or friends were there in factory
  
• Those without social connections had to wait for weeks
  
• Some stayed in Night Refuges that were set up by private individuals; others went to the Casual Wards maintained by the Poor Law authorities
  
• Seasonality in work – prolonged period without work, many looked for odd jobs which were difficult to find in mid-19^th century
  
• Wages increased but that tell us little about welfare of workers. When prices rose, real value of what workers earned fell during Napoleonic wars. Income depended not on the wage rate alone but also period of employment (number of days of work). At best time in mid-19^th century – 10% population was poor but this increased to 35-75% during economic slump of 1830s
  
• Spinning Jenny – Devised by James Hargreaves in 1764, this machine speeded up the spinning process and reduced labor demand – jobs were lost
  
• Jobs came up in building activities – roads, rails, tunnels, drainage and sewer lines. Workers in transportation doubled in 1840s and doubled again in next 30 years
  

Industrialization in Colonies

• Before machines, silk and cotton from India dominated world
  
• India was known for finer cloth – taken by Armenian and Persian merchants from Punjab to Afghanistan, Persia and Central Asia – carried on camel back and sea trade
  
• Surat on the Gujarat coast connected India to the Gulf and Red Sea Ports; Masulipatam on the Coromandel coast and Hoogly in Bengal had trade links with Southeast Asian ports
  
• Merchants and bankers were involved – merchants linked port towns to inland regions (gave advances to weavers, procured cloth and carried supplies) but these were disintegrating by 1750s
  
• European companies gained power – received concessions from local courts and monopoly rights to trade – led to decline of old ports of Surat and Hoogly (credits decreased and local bankers went bankrupt). Value of trade decreased from 16 million to 3 million in 1740s. New ports like Bombay and Calcutta grew – it was indicator of strengthening colonial powers
  
• Trade was controlled by European companies and carried in European ships
  
• Consolidation of East India Company power after 1760s did not initially lead to decline in textile exports – was in great demand in Europe
  
• French, Dutch and Portuguese competed for woven cloth – company officials complained of difficulties of supply and high prices
  
• Once East India Company established political power it could assert monopoly right to trade – develop management to eliminate competition, control cost and ensure regular supply of cotton and silk
  
• Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establish a more direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called gomastha to supervise weavers
  
• It prevented Company weavers from dealing with other buyers by system of advances (weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material & those who took loan had to hand over cloth to gomastha)
  
• As loans flowed in and demand increased weavers took advances. Many had small lands which they had to lease out for devote all their time to weaving. Clashes started between weavers and gomasthas (were outsiders with no long term social link with village – acted arrogantly, marched with sepoys and punished weavers for delays). Weavers lost the space to bargain and the price received from company was pretty low.
  
• Weavers migrated from Carnatic and Bengal to establish in other areas. Weavers & traders revolted and refused loans, closed workshops and took as agricultural labor.
  

Manchester Comes to India

• In 1772, Henry Patullo, a Company official, had ventured to say that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce, since no other nation produced goods of the same quality.
  
• But it declined in 1811-12 it was 33% which reduced to 3% in 1850-51
  
• Cotton industries developed in Britain, industrial groups’ pressurized government to put import duties on cotton textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain without competition and persuaded East India Company to sell it in India.
  
• By end of 18^th century there was no import of cotton in India, rose to 31% by 1850 and 50% by 1870s in terms of value of imports
  
• Challenges for cotton weavers in India – collapsed exports and shrinking local market (low cost of machine made cloth from Britain). By 1860s weavers could not get supply of good quality cotton.
  
• When American Civil War broke, cotton supplies from US were cut and Britain looked to India. So exports increased again and prices of raw cotton shot up & Indian weavers were starved of supplies at high prices. Factories in India started producing and machine goods came in which affected local weavers.
  

Factories Came Up

• 1854 – 1^st cotton mill in Bombay – production started 2 years later
  
• By 1862 – 4 mill started work with 94,000 spindles and 2,150 looms
  
• 1855- 1^st jute mill in Bengal & again another in 1862
  
• 1860s – Elgin Mill started in Kanpur & then in Ahmedabad
  
• 1874 – 1^st spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production
  

Entrepreneurs in India

• British in India began exporting opium to China and took tea from China to England
  
• In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made his fortune in the China trade before he turned to industrial investment, setting up six joint-stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s – but sank in business crisis in 1840s
  
• In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata - built huge industrial empires in India, accumulated their initial wealth partly from exports to China, and partly from raw cotton shipments to England
  
• Seth Hukumchand - Marwari businessman who set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917, also traded with China
  
• G.D. Birla – his father as well as grandfather
  
• In 1912, J.N. Tata set up the first iron and steel works in India at Jamshedpur. Iron and steel industries in India started much later than textiles. In colonial India industrial machinery, railways and locomotives were mostly imported.
  
• Merchants from Madras traded with Burma & others with Middle East and East Africa
  
• Indian merchants were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods, and had to export mostly raw materials and food grains – raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo – required by the British
  
• Till WW-I, European Managing Agencies (Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner & Co.) in fact controlled a large sector of Indian industries (mainly tea and coffee plantations, mining, jute and indigo). These set up joint stock companies and managed them. In most instances Indian financiers provided capital while European Agencies made all investment and business decisions
  

Entry of Workers

• In 1901, there were 584,000 workers in Indian factories. By 1946 the number was over 2,436,000.
  
• Those who found no work in villages came to cities in industries.
  
• 50% workers in Bombay industries came from Ratnagiri
  
• Slowly workers travelled great distances for jobs to work in mills in Bombay and Calcutta
  
• Number seeking work were always more than jobs available. Entry to mill was restricted and they employed jobber (old and trusted worker – became person with authority) to get new recruits
  
• Factory workers increased over time but their proportion was small to total workforce
  
• Early cotton mills in India produced coarse cotton yarn (thread) rather than fabric. When yarn was imported it was only of the superior variety. The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to China.
  
• Nationalists mobilized people to boycott foreign cloth. Industrial groups organized themselves to protect collective interest, pressurize government to increase tariff and grant concessions
  
• After 1906, exports to China declined was they started their own mills. In India, it registered a shift from yarn to cloth
  
• WW-I – British mills were busy in producing for war, imports from Manchester declined and Indian mills saw a home market to supply. Indian factories were called for war needs as well – bags, cloths, tents, boots – new factories were set up with multiple shifts – more workers and working hours leading to industrial boom
  
• After war, Manchester could never regain the value and compete with US, Japan and Germany. Cotton production in Britain dropped drastically
  
• Around 67% large industries in 1911 were located in Bengal and Bombay
  
• Handicrafts expanded in 20^th century between 1900 and 1940 – adopted new technology to improve production without pushing up costs
  
• Weavers used looms with fly shuttle (device for weaving by ropes and pullies) – led to higher productivity per worker, higher production and reduced labor demand – mainly in Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin & Bengal
  

Image of Location of Large Scale Industries in 1931

Image of Location of Large Scale Industries In 1931

• Coarse cloth was bought by poor and finer cloth by well to do stable income group
  
• Famines affected sale of Banarasi and Baluchari sarees
  
• Woven border sarees and lungis and hankerchiefs of Madras could not replaced by mill
  

Market for Goods

• Indian weavers resisted colonial control, demanded tariff protection, created their own space and extended market for produce
  
• New consumers created by advertisements in newspapers, hoardings and TV.
  
• “Made in Manchester” were the labels on cloth bundles from Manchester
  
• Gripe Water calendar of 1928 by M.V. Dhurandhar - image of baby Krishna was most commonly used to popularize baby products
  
• Labels showed words, texts and images (god, personages, emperors, nawabs) with illustrations
  
• Manufacturers printed calendars to popularize there product – hung in tea shops and poor people’s home
  
• If you care for the nation then buy products that Indians produce. Advertisements became a vehicle of nationalist message of swadeshi.
  

With city size, crime flourished and 20,000 criminals in 1870s – law and order became a concern & made philanthropists (one who works for social uplift) anxious

19^th century - Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes on London labor, and compiled long lists of those who made a living from crime – but many listed as criminals were infact poor stealing food. Tricksters and thieves crowded London streets; authorities imposed penalties on crime and offered work to deserving poor

Women lost job with technological invasion and were forced to work within households. In 1861, 0.25 million women were domestic servants & started home based work like tailoring, washing etc. Later women got employment during war time and withdrew from domestic service

Children in low paid work. Andrew Mearns, a clergyman who wrote “The Bitter Cry of Outcast London” in 1880s, showed why crime was more profitable than laboring in small underpaid factories

Only after passage of the Compulsory Elementary Education Act in 1870 & factory acts beginning from 1902, that children were kept out of industrial work.

Individual landowners put cheap, unsafe tenements (overcrowded apartment) for new arrivals

In 1887, Charles Booth, a Liverpool shipowner, conducted the first social survey of lowskilled London workers in the East End of London - 1 million Londoners (1/5^th of the population of London at the time) were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29 (average life expectancy of 55 among the gentry and the middle class).

These people were more than likely to die in a ‘workhouse, hospital or lunatic asylum’. London needed rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens.

Houses were overcrowded, badly ventilated and lacked sanitation, issues of fire hazards and fear of social disorder after Russian Revolution in 1917 – idea was to plan for worker’s mass housing schemes

Temperance movement (middle class led social reforms) developed to fight against evils of drinking and drunkenness on streets

Cleaning London – decongest localities, green open spaces, reduce pollution, build apartment blocks, and introduce rent control in Britain during WW-I to ease impact of severe housing shortage

Wealthy residents could afford holiday homes in countryside

Demands for new lungs for city – bridge between city and countryside by Green Belts around London

Ebenezer Howard developed idea of Garden City – space full of plants and trees where people can live and work – would produce better citizens

Following Howard’s ideas Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker designed the garden city of New Earswick. There were common garden spaces, beautiful views, and great attention to detail

With suburb development issues of mass transport became necessary – London underground railway (1^st section in 1863 between Paddington and Farrington Street in London & carried 10,000 passengers on that day; trains running every 10 minutes). By 1880 – it expanded to carry 40 million passengers every year

Critics of underground railways – iron monsters; broken streets for construction; smoking people created heat and asphyxiation (suffocation); for 2 miles railways around 900 houses were destroyed; led to displacement of poor between two World Wars

It was success as many could live outside and join for work. Chicago, New York and Tokyo did not have the well-defined transit system

18^th century – family as unit of production, consumption and political decision making – it was transformed by industrial life. Ties loosened and marriage broke; upper and middle class women felt higher isolation; so women must be pushed back to homes

City encouraged individualism (independent action of individual) & freedom from collective values of smaller rural communities. Public space became male dominated and domestic was female dominated

Chartism (a movement demanding the vote for all adult males) & 10-hour movement (limiting hours of work in factories), mobilized large numbers of men

Gradually women demand for right to vote and married women’s right to property started

New family became heart of new markets & problem of mass leisure on Sundays and common holidays came in

“London Season” – cultural event for wealthy Britishers with opera, theatre and music having 300-400 families in 18^th century

Working class met in pubs to exchange news, drink and organize political action

19^th century – libraries, art galleries and musuems came up – for sense of history and pride. Visitors to London museum increased from 15,000 a year to 8.25 lakh in 1846 with free entry

Music halls and cinemas became mass entertainment centres

Over 1 million British people went to the seaside at Blackpool in 1883; by 1939 their numbers had gone up to 7 million.

Before the railway age, taverns were places on coach routes where horse-drawn coaches halted, and tired travelers had food and drink and rested for overnight stays. After railways, taverns declined. Pubs came closer to railway stations.

In 1886 – riots with 10,000 crowd that marched from Deptford to London; similar one occurred in 1887 which was suppressed by police and known as Bloody Sunday of Nov 1887

1889 – thousands dockworkers went to strike and marched through city

Urbanization in India was slow in 19^th century under colonial rule

Early 20^th century – 11% Indians were in cities

Large proportion of urban dwellers were in 3 Presidency cities (Bombay, Bengal and Madras) which were multi-functional with major ports, warehouses, educational institutions.

Bombay – premier city - Population grew from 6.44 lakhs in 1872 to 15 lakhs in 1941

17^th century – Bombay was group of 7 islands under Portuguese

In 1661 – control passed to British after marriage of Britain’s King Charles II to Portuguese princess.

East India Company shifted base from Surat to Bombay

Initially it was outlet of cotton textile from Gujarat

In late 19^th century – port with raw material as cotton and opium – later an administrative center and finally industrial center

1819 – became capital of Bombay presidency after defeat of Maratha in Anglo-Maratha war & city expanded

1854 – 1^st cotton textile mill was established. By 1921 – 85 cotton mills and 1.46 lakh workers. It was home to only 1/4^th local residents and rest were outsiders

Women formed 23% mill workforce between 1919 and 1926 & later number dropped to 10% as h=jobs were taken by machines

Till 20^th century – Bombay dominated maritime trade. Located at junction of two railways (encouraged higher migration)

1888-89 – Kutch famine drove people to Bombay

Flood of migrants created panic and plague epidemic spread in 1898 where 30,000 people were sent back in 1902

Bombay was crowded – (Londoners had average 155 square yards with 8 persons per house while Bombay had 9.5 square yards with 20 persons per house)

Early 1800s – Bombay Fort area was divided into native town (Indians lived) & European (white section) to north of Fort and similar in south as well

Crisis for housing, water supply became acute in mid-1850s. textile mills increased pressure on housing

Parsis, Muslims and upper caste traders had spacious bungalows while 70% lived in chawls (multi-storeyed structures owned by private landlords – were divided into one room tenements with no private toilets) – 80% population resided in one room tenements in 1901

90% of millworkers were housed in Girangaon, a ‘mill village’ not more than 15 minutes’ walk from the mills.

Bombay’s first Municipal Commissioner, Arthur Crawford, was appointed in 1865.

People had to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the ‘close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc.’

Due to small homes, streets were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shops and akharas came up in empty spots.

Jobber in mill could be the local neighborhood leader to settle disputes, organize food supply and credit

Depressed classes were kept out of the chawls and lived in shelters of corrugated sheets, leaves, or bamboo poles.

Town planning in Bombay was due to fear of plague while in London it was due to social revolution

City of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898 & focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city centre

By 1918, Trust schemes had deprived 64,000 people of their homes, but only 14,000 were rehoused. In 1918, a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable

Bombay developed by reclamation projects – earliest project began in 1784 - Bombay governor William Hornby approved building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of low-lying areas of Bombay

In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation Company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar Hill to the end of Colaba. Reclamation often meant the levelling of the hills around Bombay.

By 1870s – most private companies closed due to mounting cost & city expanded 22 square miles

Bombay Port Trust, which built a dry dock between 1914 and 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre Ballard Estate & finally Marine Drive

Bombay as “mayapuri” or city of dreams

Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay’s Hanging Gardens and it became India’s first movie in 1896

Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913)

By 1925, Bombay had become India’s film capital - money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs. 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 5.2 lakh people. Writers like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto came here

NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 7: Print Culture & Modern World

• There was a time without print and print itself has a history. Technology began in East Asia and spread in Europe and India.
  
• Before art of printing writing was done by hand
  
• Earliest technology or hand printing developed in China, Japan and Korea
  
• 594 AD – books printed by rubbing paper against the inked surface of woodblocks – both sides couldn’t be printed as was thin, Chinese ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side – craftsmen performed calligraphy
  

Print in China

• Major producer of printed material – huge bureaucratic system which recruited personnel by civil service exams – textbooks for same were printed under sponsorship of imperial state
  
• 16^th century – candidates increased and so does the volume of print
  
• 17^th century – print culture diversified from scholar officials to merchants and reading became leisure activity (fiction, poetry, autobiography and romantic plays). Rich women also began to read.
  
• Late 19^th century - Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported, Shanghai became hub of new print culture catering to western style schools & shift from hand printing to mechanical printing
  

Print in Japan

• Handprinting in Japan by Buddhist missionaries from China in 768-770 AD
  
• Oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868, is Buddhist Diamond Sutra, containing six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations
  
• Pictures printed on textiles, playing cards and paper money
  
• Poets and prose writers published cheap and abundant books
  
• Late 18^th century – urban circle at Edo (Tokyo) – collection of paintings of urban culture, artists
  
• Books on women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places
  
• Kitagawa Utamaro – art form ukiyo (‘pictures of the floating world’) or depiction of ordinary human experiences - travelled to contemporary US and Europe and influenced artists like Manet, Monet and Van Gogh.
  
• Publishers like Tsutaya Juzaburo identified subjects and commissioned artists who drew the theme in outline.
  
• Skilled woodblock carver pasted drawing on a woodblock and carved a printing block to reproduce the painter’s lines. In the process, the original drawing would be destroyed and only prints would survive.
  

Print to Europe

• Silk and species flowed to Europe by Silk route & paper reached Europe by same route in 11^th century
  
• Paper made possible manuscripts written by scribes (skilled handwriters)
  
• Marco Polo returned to Italy after being in China for many years & brought idea of woodblock printing
  
• Italians started to make books with woodblocks & it spread to other nations in Europe
  
• Luxury editions were handwritten on velum (parchment made from animal skin) for aristocratic and rich monastic libraries
  
• As demand increased, booksellers exported books, book fairs were held
  
• Scribes were now employed by booksellers (each having 50 scribes)
  
• Copying was an expensive, laborious and time-consuming business. Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle, and could not be carried around & had limited circulation
  
• Need for quicker and cheaper text reproduction – new print technology – At Strasbourg, Germany, Johann Gutenberg developed first-known printing press in 1430s
  

Gutenburg & Printing Press

• Gutenberg was son of merchant who grew on agricultural estate seeing olive and wine presses. He learnt polishing stones & acquired expertise to create lead moulds for making trinkets
  
• Olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet.
  

Image of Movable Type Printing Machine

Image of Movable type printing machine

Movable Type Printing Machine

• By 1448, he perfected the system and 1^st book to be printed was Bible – 180 copies were printed in 3 years (considered fast production at that time) - No two copies were the same. Every page of each copy was different. Elites preferred it due to differences (colored regions were left blank while text in black – color was used to emphasis)
  
• Printed books resembled handwritten manuscripts as metal letters intimated handwritten designs – borders were illuminated with foliage and illustrations were painted
  
• For rich – space was left blank for decoration
  
• B/w 1450 and 1550 – many printing press across Europe
  
• 2^nd half of 15^th century – 20 million copies in Europe which increased to 200 million by 16^th century
  

Image of Printer's Workshop, Sixteenth Century

Image of Printer's Workshop, sixteenth century

Print Revolution & Impact

• Development with new ways of producing books
  
• Transformed lives and changed relationships
  
• Spread knowledge and information
  
• New reading public emerged – cost of books became less and people were able to afford it – earlier it was meant only for elite group
  
• Earlier common people only had oral culture – hear sacred texts, recite ballads and folk tales or see a performance – books were expensive and could not be produce in large numbers
  
• Again rate of literacy was very low till 20^th century – those who could not read would enjoy listening to it so folk tales were published with pictures and sung in village gatherings and taverns in towns
  
• Circulation of ideas emerged – those who disagreed with authorities could now print ideas
  
• Some were apprehensive that wider circulation of printed books could open people’s mind and they could rebel
  
• In 1517, religious reformer Martin Luther wrote Ninety Five Theses criticizing many of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church – posted on church door in Wittenberg – it was immediately reproduced and led to division within Church and beginning of Protestant Reformation. His translation of New Testament sold 5000 copies within few weeks and 2^nd edition came in 3 months. He said “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one”
  
• 16^th century – Menocchio, a miller in Italy could read books –reinterpreted Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. When the Roman Church began its inquisition to repress heretical (believes that don’t follow accepted teachings) ideas, Menocchio was hauled up twice and ultimately executed.
  
• Now Roman Church established several controls over publishers and booksellers to maintain Index of Prohibited Books from 1558
  

Reading Mania

• 17^th and 18^th century – literacy rate surged
  
• Church started to set up schools in villages
  
• By end of 18^th century – literacy rate increased to 60-80%
  
• Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed in villages selling books
  
• Almanacs, calendars, folktales; chapbooks (pocket sized books) sold for penny in England;
  
• In France, were “Biliotheque Bleue”, which were low-priced small books printed on poor quality paper, and bound in cheap blue covers
  
• Romances printed on 4 to 6 pages and histories which were stories of past
  
• Early 18^th century – periodical press developed – combine current affairs with entertainment; newspapers and journals
  
• Scientists and philosophers became more accessible to common people – included scientific texts and diagrams
  
• Newton started to publish the discoveries
  
• Thinkers like Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau started to print and read – idea about science, reason and rationality found way in literature – world could be seen with new eyes of critical understanding and reasoning
  
• Conditions created in French revolution by Print Culture
  
• Books meant for spreading progress and enlightenment – change and liberate society from despotism and intellect could rule and bring in public opinion
  
• Popularized ideas of enlightenment thinkers – argued for rule of reason and judgment to be done on rationality; authority of Church was attacked
  
• Created culture of dialogue and debate – reevaluation of norms, values and institutions – new ideas of social revolution
  
• By 1780s literature mocked royal culture and criticized morality – cartoons suggested that monarchy was absorbed in sensual pleasures and common man suffered hardships
  
• Spread of ideas – reinterpretation of things in their own way – it did not shape the mind but opened possibility to think differently
  

19^th Century

• Leap in mass literacy in Europe and increasing number of readers
  
• Late 19^th century – primary education became compulsory – children became important readers
  
• Production of school textbooks became critical
  
• Children’s press was set up in France in 1857 – new works, old fairy tales and folk tales
  
• Grimm brothers complied folk tales and it was edited before publishing in 1812
  
• Penny magazines were popular in women – as manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping
  
• Women novelists - Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Elio – defined new type of women as person with will, strength, determination and power to think
  
• Since 17^th century – lending libraries were seen. In 19^th century – it became instrument to educate workers, artisans and middle class
  
• After working hours shortened from mid-19^th century – workers found time for self-improvement and self-expression and started to write political tracts and autobiographies
  

Innovations

• Late 18^th century – press was made of metal
  
• By the mid-19^th century - Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-driven cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour for printing newspapers
  
• Late 19^th century – offset print was developed – could print 6 colors at a time
  
• 20^th century - electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations
  
• Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the color register were introduced
  
• Mechanical improvements transformed appearances of printed texts
  
• Publishers and printers developed strategies to sell their products
  
• Nineteenth-century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
  
• In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
  
• 20^th century innovation - Dust cover or book jacket
  
• During Great depression decline in book purchases – and people bought cheap paperback editions
  

India and World of Print

• India had rich handwritten manuscripts I Sanskrit, Arabian and Persian – copied on palm leaves or handmade papers with beautiful illustrations and wooden covers
  
• 18^th century - Gita Govinda by Jayadev - palm-leaf handwritten manuscript in accordion format
  
• 14^th century poet - Hafiz collected works are known as Diwan.
  
• Highly expensive and fragile manuscripts were made – handled carefully and could not be read as the scripts were written in different styles
  
• In Schools (mainly Bengal) – extensive primary schools but children did not read texts, they only could write
  
• Mid-16th century – 1^st printing press in Goa with Portuguese missionaries
  
• Jesuit preists learnt Konkani and printed tracts. By 1674, 50 books were printed in Konkani and Kanara languages
  
• 1^st Tamil book printed in 1579 in Cochin & 1^st Malayalam book came in 1713
  
• By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts
  
• Late 17^th Century – English East India Company began to import press
  
• From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine
  
• He published advertisements related to import and sale of slaves
  
• End of 18^th century – newspapers and journals appeared in print
  
• Indians began to publish Indian newspapers - first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazette, brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Rammohan Roy
  

Religious Reforms

• Some against reforms while others were in favor of it
  
• Wider public could lead to more public discussions & new ideas emerged
  
• Time of controversy between religious reformers and orthodoxy like widow immolation, monotheism and idolatry
  
• Ideas were printed in language of common man
  
• Rammohan Roy published Sambad Kaumudi from 1821
  
• Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions of Raja Rammohan Roy
  
• 1822: Two Persian newspapers were published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar
  
• 1822: Gujarati newspaper, Bombay Samachar started
  
• In north India – Ulama (legal scholars of Islam) were worried about collapse of Muslim dynasty – believed colonial rule could encourage conversion – used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures, and printed religious newspapers and tracts
  
• 1867 – Deoband Seminary published thousands of fatwas (legal pronouncement on Islamic law) – telling Muslim leaders about conduct and meaning of Islamic doctrines
  
• 1^st printed edition of Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out from Calcutta in 1810.
  
• Mid-19^th century – cheap lithographic editions flooded market
  
• From the 1880s, Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars
  
• Print connected communities and created pan-Indian identities
  

New Forms of Publication

• Writings witnessed experience, emotions and relationships
  
• Novel – a literary firm in Europe catered to this need
  
• Other forms included lyrics, short stories, essays and political matters
  
• Visual images for mass circulation – Raja Ravi Varma (painter) produced mass copies
  
• Poor could buy cheap calendars to decorate houses
  
• It shaped ideas on modernity and traditions
  
• By 1870s - caricatures and cartoons were published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues – ridiculed educated Indians fascination for Western tastes
  

Women & Print

• In mid-19^th century – went to schools after separate schools for women
  
• Also carried syllabus and reading material for home based learning/schooling
  
• Mentality was not liberal - Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances
  
• 19^th century – In East Bengal Rashsundari Debi, young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
  
• 1860s in Bengal - Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women
  
• 1880s – In Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows
  
• 1870s – Serious beginning for Hindi printing – education, remarriage, national movement
  
• Ram Chaddha published fast-selling Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives. Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
  
• Central Calcutta area Battala – devoted to printing of popular books – cheap editions of religious and literature texts – many were illustrated with woodcuts and colored lithographs. Pedlars took Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read
  

Print & Poor People

• 19^th century – cheap small books in market sold at crossroads
  
• Early 20^th century – public libraries were set up expanding access to books (for rich, setting up library was way to acquire prestige)
  
• Jyotiba Phule, Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871)
  
• In 20^th century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) in Madras wrote powerfully on caste and their writings were read by people all over India
  
• Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to show the links between caste and class exploitation
  
• The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavitayan.
  
• By 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers
  

Print & Censorship

• Before 1798, colonial state under East India Company were not too concerned with censorship
  
• Early measures to control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of particular Company officers. Company was worried that such criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade monopoly in India.
  
• 1820s – regulations to control press freedom was passed & company encouraged publications that would celebrate British rule
  
• In 1835, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws.
  
• Thomas Macaulay (liberal colonial official) formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms
  
• Vernacular press became nationalist, government brought stringent measures
  
• 1878 – Vernacular Press Act was passed modelled on Irish Press Laws – provided with extensive rights to censor reports in vernacular press & strict control by government
  
• Nationalist newspapers reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities – it led to renewed cycle of persecution and protests
  
• When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.
  
  
  Emile Zola
  Germinal
  1885
  Life of a young miner in France explores in harsh detail grim conditions of miners’ lives. It ends on a note of despair: strike the hero leads fails, his co-workers turn against him, and hopes are shattered.
  
  Hardy
  Mayor of Casterbridge
  1886
  About Michael Henchard, a successful grain merchant, who becomes the mayor of the farming town of Casterbridge. He is an independent-minded man who follows his own style in conducting business. He can also be both unpredictably generous and cruel with his employees. Consequently, he is no match for his manager and rival Donald Farfrae (runs his business on efficient managerial lines, is smooth and even-tempered). We can see that Hardy mourns the loss of the more personalized world that is disappearing, even as he is aware of its problems and the advantages of the new order.
  Novels used vernacular (language of common man) – created shared world within diverse population – combined classical language with language of streets.
  
  R.L. Stevenson
  Treasure Island
  1883
  Rudyard Kipling
  Jungle Book
  1894
  Powerful, assertive, independent and daring – full of adventure - heroic and honorable
  
  G.A. Henty
  Drake’s Flag
  1883
  Historical adventure novels for boys -excitement and adventure of conquering strange lands. They were set in Mexico, Alexandria, Siberia and many other countries. About young boys who witness grand historical events, get involved in some military action and show what they called ‘English’ courage.
  Two young Elizabethan adventurers face their apparently approaching death, but still remember to assert their Englishness
  
  Helen Hunt Jackson
  Ramona
  1884
  Sarah Chauncey Woolsey (pen name Susan Coolidge)
  What Katy Did
  1872
  Love stories in USA
  
  Daniel Defoe
  Robinson Crusoe
  1719
  The hero is an adventurer and slave trader. Shipwrecked on an island, Crusoe treats colored people not as human beings equal to him, but as inferior creatures. He rescues a ‘native’ and makes him his slave and gives him the name “Friday” – this was unacceptable behavior as most writers saw colonialism as natural
  
  Baba Padmanji
  Yamuna Paryatan
  1857
  The earliest novel in Marathi was which used a simple style of storytelling to speak about the plight of widows.
  
  Lakshman Moreshwar Halbe
  Muktamala
  1861
  It was not a realistic novel; it presented an imaginary ‘romance’ narrative with a moral purpose.
  
  Naro Sadashiv Risbud
  Manjughosha
  1868
  Used a highly ornamental style in his Marathi novel filled with amazing events
  
  O. Chandu Menon
  Indulekha
  1889
  A subjudge from Malabar, tried to translate English novel called Henrietta Temple written by Benjamin Disraeli into Malayalam – but people in Kerala found their clothes, speaking etc. as boring. He wrote a story in Malayalam in the ‘manner of English novel books’. This delightful novel called Indulekha, was the first modern novel in Malayalam.
  
  Kandukuri Viresalingam(1848-1919)
  Rajasekhara Caritamu
  1878
  From Andhra Pradesh began translating Oliver Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield into Telugu. He abandoned this plan for similar reasons and instead wrote an original Telugu novel called Rajasekhara Caritamu in 1878.
  
  Srinivas Das
  Pariksha-Guru (Master Examiner)
  1882
  First proper modern novel was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. His novel cautioned young men of well-to-do families against the dangerous influences of bad company and consequent loose morals – reflect inner and outer world of emerging middle class – adopt colonized society and preserve cultural identity
  Teach right way to live – take new agricultural technology, modernize trading practice, change use of Indian languages & transmit Western Sciences and Indian wisdom – all this must be achieved without sacrificing the traditional values of the middle-class household
  
  Devaki Nandan Khatri
  Chandrakanta
  A romance with dazzling elements of fantasy – is believed to have contributed immensely in popularizing the Hindi language & Nagari script among the educated classes of those times.
  
  Premchand
  Sewasadan (The Abode of Service)
  1916
  Premchand started in Urdu and then in Hindi – in art of kissa-goi (story-telling). His novel lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralizing and simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary people and social issues – dealt with poor conditions of women in society, child marriage and dowry
  
  Rajanikanta Bardoloi
  Manomati
  1900
  He wrote the first major historical novel in Assam. It is set in the Burmese invasion, stories of which the author had probably heard from old soldiers who had fought in the 1819 campaign. It is a tale of two lovers belonging to two hostile families who are separated by the war and finally reunited.
  
  Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
  Durgeshnandini
  1865
  He would host a jatra in the courtyard where members of the family would be gathered. In Bankim’s room, however, a group of literary friends would collect to read, discuss and judge literary works. Bankim read out Durgeshnandini, his first novel, to such a gathering of people who were stunned to realize that the Bengali novel had achieved excellence so quickly.
  Prose style in novels, initially it was colloquial style and used meyeli (language associated with women’s speech) – the style was replaced by Bankim’s prose which was Sanskritized.
  By 20^th century, power of telling stories in simple language made Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay (1876-1938) the most popular novelist in Bengal and probably in the rest of India.
  
  Rokeya Hossein (1880-1932)
  Sultana’s Dream
  1905
  Was a reformer who, after she was widowed, started a girl’s school in Calcutta. She wrote a satiric (criticism of society in witty manner) fantasy in English which shows a topsy-turvy world in which women take the place of men. Her novel Padmarag also showed the need for women to reform their condition by their own actions
  
  Gulavadi Venkata Rao
  Indirabai
  1899
  The heroine is given away in marriage at a very young age to an elderly man. Her husband dies soon after, and she is forced to lead the life of a widow. In spite of opposition from her family and society, Indirabai succeeds in continuing her education
  Central dilemma faced by colonial subjects - how to be modern without rejecting tradition, how to accept ideas coming from the West without losing one’s identity
  
  Chandu Menon
  Indulekh
  A love story. Nambuthiri, the foolish landlord who comes to marry Indulekha, is the focus of much satire in the novel. The intelligent heroine rejects him and chooses Madhavan, the educated and handsome Nayar as her husband, and the young couple move to Madras, where Madhavan joins the civil service.
  Concerned the marriage practices of upper-caste Hindus in Kerala, especially the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars. Nambuthiris were also major landlords in Kerala at that time; and a large section of the Nayars were their tenants. Young generation of Nayars occupied property and wealth and argued against Nambuthiri alliances with Nayar women.
  Chandu Menon portrayed Indulekha as a woman of breathtaking beauty, high intellectual abilities, artistic talent, and with an education in English and Sanskrit. Madhavan, the hero of the novel, was also presented in ideal colours. He was a member of the newly English-educated class of Nayars from the University of Madras. He was also a ‘first-rate Sanskrit scholar’. He dressed in Western clothes. But, at the same time, he kept a long tuft of hair, according to the Nayar custom.
  
  Jane Austen
  Pride and Prejudice
  19^th century Britain - give us a glimpse of the world of women in genteel rural society – look for good marriages and find wealthy husbands – “single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife”
  
  Charlotte Bronte
  Jane Eyre
  1847
  Dealt with women who broke existing norms
  Young Jane is shown as independent and assertive. While girls of her time were expected to be quiet and well behaved, Jane at the age of ten protests against the hypocrisy of her elders with startling bluntness; against her aunt and calls her deceitful
  
  Ramashankar Ray
  Saudamani
  1877-78
  A dramatist, began serializing the first Oriya novel, Saudamani but could not complete it.
  
  Fakir Mohon Senapati (1843-1918)
  Chaa Mana Atha Guntha
  1902
  Orissa produced a major novelist. It translates as six acres and thirty-two decimals of land. It announces a new kind of novel that will deal with the question of land and its possession. It is the story of Ramchandra Mangaraj, a landlord’s manager who cheats his idle and drunken master and then eyes the plot of fertile land owned by Bhagia and Shariya, a childless weaver couple.
  
  Charles Dickens
  Hard Times
  1854
  Against industrialization in his novel describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple and buildings that all looked the same. Workers are known as ‘hands’, as if they had no identity other than as operators of machines. Humans were reduced to simple instruments.
  
  Charles Dickens
  Oliver Twist
  1838
  Explained terrible condition of urban life under capitalism - tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and beggars. Brought up in a cruel workhouse, Oliver was finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after
  Hannah Mullens
  Karuna o Phulmonir Bibaran
  1852
  A Christian missionary, reputedly the first novel in Bengali, tells her readers that she wrote in secret.
  Advaita Malla Burman’s (1914-51)
  Titash Ekti Nadir Naam
  1956
  It is an epic about Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in river Titash. The novel is about three generations of the Mallas, about their recurring tragedies and the story of Ananta, a child born of parents who were tragically separated after their wedding night. He leaves community to get educated in the city – as river dries the community dies.
  Potheri Kunjambu
  Saraswativijayam
  1892
  A ‘lower-caste’ writer from north Kerala mounted a strong attack on caste oppression. This novel shows a young man from an ‘untouchable’ caste, leaving his village to escape the cruelty of his Brahmin landlord. He converts to Christianity and gets education. Explains education of upliftment of lower castes.
  Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer (1908-94)
  Was one of the early Muslim writers to gain wide renown as a novelist in Malayalam. He didn’t had much formal education and most works were based on rich personal experience. He took part in Salt Satyagarha and he wrote short novels and stories. Brought in his writings – poverty, insanity and life in prisons.
  Bhudeb Mukhopadhyay (1827-94)
  Anguriya Binimoy
  1857
  Was the first historical novel written in Bengal. Its hero Shivaji engages in many battles against a clever and treacherous Aurangzeb. Man Singh persuades Shivaji to make peace with Aurangzeb. Realizing that Aurangzeb intended to confine him as a house prisoner, Shivaji escapes and returns to battle. What gives him courage and tenacity is his belief that he is a nationalist fighting for the freedom of Hindus.
  Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (1912-99),
  Chemmeen (Shrimp)
  1956
  It is set in fishing community in Kerala, and characters speak a variety of Malayalam used by fisherfolk in the region. The film Chemmeen, directed by Ramu Kariat, was made in 1965.
  Bankim
  Anandamath
  1882
  It is a novel about a secret Hindu militia that fights Muslims to establish a Hindu kingdom. It was a novel that inspired many kinds of freedom fighters.
  Premchand
  Rangbhoomi (The Arena)
  It has characters that create a community based on democratic values. Central character, Surdas, is a visually impaired beggar from a so-called ‘untouchable’ caste. The very act of choosing such a person as the ‘hero’ of a novel is significant. It makes the lives of the most oppressed section of society as worthy of literary reflection.
  His novels are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels of society. He rejected nostalgic obsession with history. His novels look towards the future without forgetting the importance of the past.
  Premchand
  Godan (gift of Cow)
  1936
  It is his best known work. It is an epic of the Indian peasantry. Novel tells the moving story of Hori and his wife Dhania, a peasant couple. Landlords, moneylenders, priests and colonial bureaucrats – all those who hold power in society – form a network of oppression, rob their land and make them into landless laborers. Yet Hori and Dhania retain their dignity to the end.
  Rabindranath Tagore
  Ghare Baire
  1916
  It were historical and later based on domestic relationships and focused on women and nationalism. Concerns are featured in his Ghare Baire (1916) translated in 1919 as The Home and the World. The story is about Bimala, wife of Nikhilesh, a liberal landlord who believes that he can save his country by patiently bettering the lives of its poor and marginal sections. But Bimala is attracted to Sandip, her husband’s friend and a firebrand extremist. Sandip is so completely dedicated to throwing out the British that he does not mind if the poor ‘low’ castes suffer and Muslims are made to feel like outsiders. By becoming a part of Sandip’s group, Bimala gets a sense of self-worth and self-esteem. Bimala may be admired by the young males of the group but she cannot influence their decisions. Indeed, she is used by Sandip to acquire funds for the movement. Tagore’s novels make us rethink both man-woman relationships and nationalism.
  
  Summary for NCERT Class 10 History Summary for NCERT Class 10 History
  

  

  Image of World Map

  Image of world map

  Chapter 1: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
  Concept of Nation State - common identity and shared history developed & was result of struggle, action of leaders and common people
  

  French Revolution

• 1^st expression of nationalism in 1789
  
• Transfer from monarchy to body of French citizens – people constitute the nation and shape the destiny
  
• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights
  
• New French tricolor flag to replace former royal standard
  
• Estates General was elected and renamed as National Assembly
  
• Centralized administrative system with uniform laws for citizens within territory
  
• Abolish internal custom duties and dues
  
• Formulate uniform system of weights and measures
  
• French became a common language and regional dialects were discouraged
  
• Aim to liberate people of Europe from despotism
  
• Establishment of Jacobin clubs – French army moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in 1970s
  
• Developments under Napoleon – Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) did away with privileges based on birth, established equality and secured right to property. He abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom. He removed guild restriction and improved transportation.
  

Image of Europe

Image of Europe

• Unification of Germany – Bismarck – constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association
  
• Unification of Italy – Mazzini, later Garibaldi
  
• Mazzini formed Young Italy in Marseilles & Young Europe in Berne (1833).
  
• Developments in Balkan state – ethnic diversity
  
• Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) - many different regions and peoples. It includes:
  
• Alpine regions – Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland
  
• Bohemia - German-speaking
  
• Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia
  
• Hungary – half population spoke Magyar & others regional dialects
  
• Polish speaking people in Galicia
  

Liberal Nationalism – liberalism (Latin – liber means free) means freedom for individual and equality of all before law.
It stood as end of autocracy and clerical privileges & stressed inviolability of private property
Universal suffrage – France – initially only property owned man had right to vote. Under Jacobins, right was given to all adult males. Under Napoleon, righted were limited and reduced for women. Later opposition movements began.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from more than 30 to 2. I
Conservatism after 1815 - Conservatism is a philosophy that stresses on tradition, customs and prefers gradual change

• They believed modernization can strengthen traditional institutions like monarchy making state more effective
  
• Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe
  
• In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria who collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna under Congress hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich to draw Treaty of Vienna. Idea was to undo changes that happened under Napoleonic wars & keep check on expansion of French territory
  

Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• Revolutionaries were educated middle class elite, professors, school teachers, clerks and commercial middle classes.
  
• France upheaval in 1830 – Bourbon kings restored to power were overthrown by liberal Louis Phillippe
  
• Metternich said ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.’
  
• July Revolution sparked uprising in Brussels that led to Belgium breaking away from UK of Netherlands.
  
• Greek war of independence –Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
  

Imagination & National Feeling

• Nationalism came across by idea of culture (poetry, story and music) along with wars and territorial expansion.
  
• Romanticism – criticized glorification of reason and science & focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Idea was to share collective heritage, common cultural past and basis of nation.
  
• Paintings
  
• Johann Gottfried Herder, German – discover German culture among common man (das volk) – by folk songs and dances spirit of nation (volksgeist) was popularized
  
• Collection of vernacular language and folklore to carry message to illiterate audiences
  
• Operas and music
  
• Folk tales
  

Hunger, Hardship & Popular Revolt

1830s – years of economic hardships in Europe

1848: Revolution of Liberals

• Brought abdication of monarch and republic based on universal male suffrage
  
• Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification – constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association
  
• In Germany, German National Assembly was formed on 18^th May, 1848 with 831 elected representatives. They drafted a constitution for German nations to be headed by monarchy. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
  
• Women formed political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings but were denied suffrage rights.
  
• Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political activist who founded a women’s journal and subsequently a feminist political association (awareness of women rights and interests)
  
• Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished both in Habsburg dominions and in Russia. Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
  

Making of Germany & Italy

• Liberal initiative to nation-building in Germany was repressed by monarchy and military & supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
  
• Prussia took leadership for national unification with Otto von Bismarck as the architect. 3 wars over 7 years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory & unification.
  
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony in Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles
  
• New state emphasized modernization of currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany
  

Italy Unified

• Italy had scattered dynasties and Habsburg Empire. In mid-19th century – it was divided in 7 states of which Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by Italian princely house.
  
• Garibaldi was sailor. In 1860, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Volunteers joined and were known as Red Shirts. In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed. I
  

Case of Britain

• Nation state formation was not sudden but a long drawn out process. Prior to 18^th century there were ethnic groups like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish with their own culture and traditions. As it grew in wealth and power, influence extended to other nations.
  
• English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688
  
• Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ - England was able to impose its influence on Scotland
  
• British parliament was dominated by English members and Scotland’s culture was suppressed. Catholics from Scotland suffered repression. Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
  
• Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants to establish power over Catholic nation. Catholics were suppressed. After failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into UK in 1801.
  
• Symbols of the New Britain: British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language were actively promoted
  
• Nations were portrayed as females. Female figure became an allegory (abstract idea expressed through person or things) of the nation.
  
• In France she was christened Marianne.
  
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
  
• Balkans - geographical and ethnic variation included Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro - people called as Slavs. Majority of Balkans was under Ottoman Empire. Spread of romantic nationalism & disintegration of Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
  

Chapter 2: The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China
Indo-China included Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.

Map of Indo-China

Map of Indo-China

• After Franco-Chinese war, French assumed control over Tonkin and Anaam & French Indo-China was formed in 1887.
  
• French considered colonies necessary to supply natural resources and essential goods.
  
• Canals were built to increase cultivation
  
• Trans Indo-China rail network was made to connect south and north Vietnam and China
  
• Plantation crops included rice and rubber owned by French & small Vietnamese elite.
  
• Education & Dilemma – To privileged few
  
• Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a Western style education included science, hygiene and French (these classes were held in the evening and had to be paid for separately) and adoption of short haircut (traditionally Vietnamese have long hair)
  
• By 1920s students formed political parties (like Party of Young Annan) & published journals like Annanese Student.
  
• Schools became center for political and cultural battles.
  
• Students inspired by happenings in Japan during revolt with Russia
  
• 1930: Ho Chi Minh forms the Vietnamese Communist Party.
  
• Ho Chi Minh in North & Bao Dai in South Vietnam
  
• Plague affected Hanoi - Bounty program was scrapped.
  
• From 18^th century – many religious movements were hostile to Western presence. Early movement against French control and spread of Christianity was Scholars Revolt in 1868 (against Catholicism and French power)
  
• Hao Hao movement in 1939 in Mekong delta – It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the 19^th century. Its founder was Huynh Phu – mental asylum
  
• Resistance to French domination was led by Confucian Phan Boi Chau – formed Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with Prince Cuong De as the head.
  
• Phan Chu Trinh - intensely hostile to the monarchy and opposed to the idea of resisting the French, aimed to establish democratic republic
  
• Go East Movement - drive away French from Vietnam, overthrow puppet rule & establish Nguyen dynasty
  
• Bao Dai was overthrown by Ngo Dinh Diem (repressive & authoritarian – those who opposed were called communist and killed). Diem retained ordinance 10, French law that permitted Christianity & was opposed by National Liberation Front (NLF)
  
• NLF fought for unification of nation. US watched for alliance and was worried over unification and communist gaining so sent troops
  
• Dominion status of nation – US worried
  
• Minh became an active member of Commintern
  

Ho Chi Minh Trail

Women were portrayed brave and dedicated.
Chapter 3: Nationalism in India

• Gandhi’s return from South Africa
  
• 1916 – Champaran, Bihar against oppressive plantation
  
• 1917 – Kheda, Gujarat – crop failure and plague – relaxation on revenue collection
  
• 1918 – Organize Ahmedabad textile mill workers
  
• Rowlatt Act (1919) – Nationwide protest against it. Passed by Imperial Legislative Council despite united opposition. It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
  
• Jallianwalla Bagh Incidence
  
• Khilafat issue - harsh treaty on Khalifa (Ottoman emperor).
  
• Surrender of titles, boycott of civil services, army, police, court, legislative council, schools and foreign goods
  
• Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in Jan. 1921 – call of Swaraj
  
• Khadi concept
  
• Awadh (Baba Ramchandra – sanyasi who earlier had been to Fiji as indentured labourer) – against talukdars and landlords who were demanding high rents, begar (forced laborer without payment)
  
• Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh – militant guerilla movement started in 1920s - led by Alluri Sitaram Raju
  
• Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission
  
• After Chauri Chaura incident in Gorakhpur – Gandhi called off Non Cooperation movement
  
• CR Das & Motilal Nehru formed Swaraj Party – to argue for return to council politics
  
• Factors affecting Indian Politics late 1920s
  
  • Effect of worldwide economic depression, agricultural prices fell from 1926 & collapsed after 1930. Peasants found hard to sell harvest and pay revenue
    
  • Tory government in Britain constituted Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon – functioning of constitutional system & no single Indian in the commission – in 1928 was greeted with “Go Back Simon”
    
• 1929 - Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly & also attempt to blow the train in which Irwin was travelling – idea was “Inquilab Zindabad”
  
• 31 Jan 1930 – Letter to Irwin with 11 demands – bringing all classes under united campaign – demand to abolish salt tax (monopoly over salt production by Britisher was most oppressive face of British rule)
  
• If demands are not fulfilled, Congress would launch
  

Civil Disobedience Movement

• Salt March – with 78 volunteers for 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi – 24 days and walked 10 miles a day
  
• Not only refuse cooperation but also break laws
  
• Movement called off and Gandhi entered Irwin pact on March 1931
  
• Untouchables or Dalits or oppressed were not moved by abstract ideas of swaraj
  
• BR Ambedkar – organized dalits into Depressed Classes Association in 1930 – clashed with Gandhi at 2^nd Round Table Conference for a separate electorate for dalits.
  
• Muslims felt alienated and from mid-1920s Congress came to be openly associated with Hindus like Hindu Mahasabha – led to worsened relations between Hindus and Muslims – provoked communal riots
  
• Muslim League and Congress tried to renegotiate an alliance and in 1927 it appeared that such unity could be forged – differences were over representation in future assemblies that were to be elected
  
• Jinnah (leader of Muslim League) - willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal and Punjab).
  
• Hope to resolve issue disappeared when MR Jayakar of Hindu Mahasabha opposed to compromise
  

Nationalism

• Nation symbolized as figure or image – identity of India as Bharat Mata (image 1^st by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay – he later wrote Vande Mataram & novel Anandmath)
  
• During Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed.
  
• By 1921, Gandhi had designed the Swaraj flag.
  
• Reinterpretation of history
  
• Idea was to resolve difference and ensure demand of one group did not alienate another
  

Chapter 4: The Making of a Global World

• Silk route – silk, goods, cargo, pottery, print and paper, gold and silver, later religion and ideologies
  
• Food
  
• Noodles travelled from west to China & became spaghetti
  
• Arab traders took pasta to 5^th century Sicily
  
• Foods like potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chilies, sweet potatoes were not known to our ancestors five centuries ago – introduced after Columbus accidently discovered Americas
  
• Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonization of America – under by mid-16^th century – conquest not by firepower but by germs of smallpox
  
• From 15^th century – China restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. China’s reduced role and rising importance of America moved center of world trade westwards & Europe became center of world trade
  
• 3 trade – flow of trade, labor and movement of capital for short term and long term investments – affected people more deeply (labor migration was restricted than goods and capital flows)
  
• Canal colonies (area irrigated by new canals) – settled by peasants from other parts of Punjab
  
• Between 1820 and 1914 world trade is estimated to have multiplied 25 to 40 times
  
• Trade in meat – till 1870s animals were shipped live from America to Europe & then slaughtered –
  
• Colonialism
  
• Rinderpest (cattle plague) spread
  
• Indentured labor (bonded laborer under contract to work for an employer for a specific amount of time, to pay off his passage to a new country or home)
  
• Protest religion of Rastafarianism (made famous by the Jamaican reggae star Bob Marley) is also said to reflect social and cultural links with Indian migrants to the Caribbean.
  
• ‘Chutney music’, popular in Trinidad and Guyana, is another creative contemporary expression of the post-indenture experience
  
• Entrepreneurs
  
• There was need to protect local industries and restrict cotton imports & tariff imposed on imported cloth from Britain.
  

Inter-War Economy

• 1^st WW was mainly fought in Europe but impacts felt across the world – lasted for over 4 years, started in 1914
  
• War was Allies (Britain, France and Russia, later joined by the US) versus Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey)
  
• US transformed from international debtor to creditor while Britain was under external debt
  
• In US recovery was quicker with strong growth in 1920s was due to mass production
  
• Ford - “best cost cutting decision”
  
• Great Depression – 1930s - by 1933 over 4,000 banks had closed and between 1929 and 1932 about 110, 000 companies had collapsed
  
• India’s export and imports halved between 1928 and 1934 & wheat prices fell by 50%
  
• 2^nd WW – after 2 decades of WW I – between Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the US) for 6 years on land, sea and air – 60 million people were killed (3% of world population) – many civilians died due to war related causes - cities destroyed, economic devastation and social disruption occurred
  
• Two crucial influences shaped post-war reconstruction.
  
  • US’s emergence as the dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world.
    
  • Dominance of the Soviet Union - It had made huge sacrifices to defeat Nazi Germany, and transformed itself from a backward agricultural country into a world power
    

Lessons from Inter-War Period

• Industrial society based on mass production cannot survive unless there is mass consumption (which requires high and stable income and stable employment)
  
• Government must step in to minimize fluctuations in price, output and employment
  
• Goal of full employment could only be achieved if governments had power to control flows of goods, capital and labor.
  
• Bretton Woods Conference established IMF – to deal with external surplus and deficit of member nations
  
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (or World Bank as was known) was set up to finance postwar reconstruction
  
• IMF & World Bank were called Bretton Woods Twins
  
• Developing nations organized themselves into group of 77 nations or G-77 for New International Economic Order (NIEO)
  
• Fixed and floating exchange rates
  
• Rise of MNCs - spread
  

Chapter 5: The Age of Industrialization

• Before factories there was proto-industrialization
  
• Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill
  
  • Most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. Cotton was leading industrial sector till 1840s. Iron & steel demand increased with expansion of railways from 1840s in Britain and 1860s in colonies. By 1873, Britain exported iron of Pound 77 billion which was double that of cotton
    
  • New industries could not displace traditional industries – by end of 19^th century – less than 20% in advanced industrial sectors. Textile was dynamic sector and majority produced in domestic units
    
  • Pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal industries. Small innovations were basis of growth in non-mechanized sectors
    
• Steam engine: James Watt improved steam engine produced by Newcomen
  
• In Victorian Britain, upper classes – aristocrats and bourgeoisie – preferred things produced by hand.
  
• Life of Workers - Some stayed in Night Refuges that were set up by private individuals; others went to the Casual Wards maintained by the Poor Law authorities
  
• Seasonality in work
  
• Surat on the Gujarat coast connected India to the Gulf and Red Sea Ports; Masulipatam on the Coromandel coast and Hoogly in Bengal had trade links with Southeast Asian ports
  
• New ports like Bombay and Calcutta grew – it was indicator of strengthening colonial powers
  
• Once East India Company established political power it could assert monopoly right to trade – develop management to eliminate competition, control cost and ensure regular supply of cotton and silk
  
• It appointed a paid servant called gomastha to supervise weavers
  
• By end of 18^th century there was no import of cotton in India, rose to 31% by 1850 and 50% by 1870s in terms of value of imports
  
• In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made his fortune in the China
  
• In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata
  
• Indian merchants were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods, and had to export mostly raw materials and food grains – raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo – required by the British
  
• Number seeking work were always more than jobs available. Entry to mill was restricted and they employed jobber (old and trusted worker – became person with authority) to get new recruits
  
• After 1906, exports to China declined was they started their own mills. In India, it registered a shift from yarn to cloth
  
• Weavers used looms with fly shuttle (device for weaving by ropes and pullies) – led to higher productivity per worker, higher production and reduced labor demand – mainly in Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin & Bengal
  
• Indian weavers resisted colonial control, demanded tariff protection, created their own space and extended market for produce – swadeshi goods
  

Chapter 6: Work, Life and Leisure

• In 1880, Durgacharan Ray wrote a novel, Debganer Martye Aagaman (The Gods Visit Earth)
  
• Cities like Nippur and Mohenjodaro were larger in scale than other settlements
  
• Cites were often the centres of political power, administrative network, trade and industry, religious institutions, and intellectual activity
  
• London – In 1750, 1 of 9 people of England and Wales lived in London. Colossal city with 6.75 lakh population which shot up to 4 million in 1880
  

Crime Grew

• Women lost job with technology
  
• Children in low paid work
  
• Only after passage of the Compulsory Elementary Education Act in 1870 & factory acts beginning from 1902, that children were kept out of industrial work.
  
• Temperance movement (middle class led social reforms) developed to fight against evils of drinking and drunkenness on streets
  
• Town planning in London – Social revolution
  
• Demands for new lungs for city – bridge between city and countryside by Green Belts around London
  
• Ebenezer Howard developed idea of Garden City
  
• Following Howard’s ideas Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker designed the garden city of New Earswick.
  
• City encouraged individualism (independent action of individual) & freedom from collective values of smaller rural communities. Public space became male dominated and domestic was female dominated
  
• Music halls & cinemas
  
• Libraries, art galleries and museums
  
• Sea beaches
  
• Taverns – night stay – place to exchange ideas and news
  
• Haussmanisation of Paris under Napoleon III
  

India

• Early 20^th century – 11% Indians were in cities
  
• Large proportion of urban dwellers were in 3 Presidency cities (Bombay, Bengal and Madras) which were multi-functional with major ports, warehouses, educational institutions.
  
• Till 20^th century – Bombay dominated maritime trade. Located at junction of two railways (encouraged higher migration)
  
• 1888-89 – Kutch famine drove people to Bombay
  
• Flood of migrants created panic and plague epidemic spread in 1898 where 30,000 people were sent back in 1902
  
• Bombay was crowded
  
• Parsis, Muslims and upper caste traders had spacious bungalows while 70% lived in chawls
  
• Town planning in Bombay was due to fear of plague
  
• Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable
  
• Bombay developed by reclamation projects
  
• Bombay as “mayapuri” or city of dreams
  
• Natural features were flattened for demand of housing
  
• Refuse and waste product polluted air and water and noise pollution became an issue
  
• Use of coal in homes created serious problems
  
• Kolkata - Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air
  

High Amount of Ash in Indian Coal Was a Problem

Singapore planning - Under Lee Kuan Yew it became independent nation in 1965 – housing and development program on every inch of land - void decks’ or empty floors were provided in all buildings for community activities & reduced crime
Chapter 7: Print Culture and the Modern World

• Print culture started in China
  
• Started with civil service exams in China
  
• Spread to common people
  
• Rise of industrialization and individualism
  
• Handprinting in Japan by Buddhist missionaries from China in 768-770 AD
  
• Kitagawa Utamaro – art form ukiyo (‘pictures of the floating world’) or depiction of ordinary human experiences
  
• Paper made possible manuscripts written by scribes (skilled handwriters)
  
• Luxury editions were handwritten on velum (parchment made from animal skin) for aristocratic and rich monastic libraries
  

Gutenburg & Printing Press

• Gutenberg was son of merchant who grew on agricultural estate seeing olive and wine presses
  
• Movement from oral to written culture
  

Circulation of Ideas

• In 1517, religious reformer Martin Luther wrote Ninety Five Theses criticizing many of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church – posted on church door in Wittenberg – it was immediately reproduced and led to division within Church and beginning of Protestant Reformation.
  
• 16^th century – Menocchio, a miller in Italy could read books –reinterpreted Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church.
  
• Almanacs, calendars, folktales; chapbooks (pocket sized books) sold for penny in England;
  
• In France, were “Biliotheque Bleue”, which were low-priced small books printed on poor quality paper, and bound in cheap blue covers
  
• Conditions created in French revolution by Print Culture
  
  • Books meant for spreading progress and enlightenment – change and liberate society from despotism and intellect could rule and bring in public opinion
    
  • Popularized ideas of enlightenment thinkers – argued for rule of reason and judgment to be done on rationality; authority of Church was attacked
    
  • Created culture of dialogue and debate – reevaluation of norms, values and institutions – new ideas of social revolution
    
  • By 1780s literature mocked royal culture and criticized morality – cartoons suggested that monarchy was absorbed in sensual pleasures and common man suffered hardships
    
  • Spread of ideas – reinterpretation of things in their own way – it did not shape the mind but opened possibility to think differently
    
• Women novelists - Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Elio – defined new type of women as person with will, strength, determination and power to think
  
• Late 19^th century – offset print was developed – could print 6 colors at a time
  
• 20^th century - electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations
  
• Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the color register were introduced
  
• 18^th century - Gita Govinda by Jayadev - palm-leaf handwritten manuscript in accordion format
  
• 14^th century poet - Hafiz collected works are known as Diwan.
  
• By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts
  
• Late 17^th Century – English East India Company began to import press
  
• From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine
  
• Rammohan Roy published Sambad Kaumudi from 1821
  
• Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions of Raja Rammohan Roy
  
• 1822: Two Persian newspapers were published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar
  
• 1822: Gujarati newspaper, Bombay Samachar started
  
• In north India – Ulama (legal scholars of Islam) were worried about collapse of Muslim dynasty
  
• 1867 – Deoband Seminary published thousands of fatwas
  
• From the 1880s, Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars
  
• 19^th century – In East Bengal Rashsundari Debi – Amar Jiban
  
• 1860s in Bengal - Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women
  
• 1880s – In Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows
  
• 1870s – Serious beginning for Hindi printing – education, remarriage, national movement
  
• Ram Chaddha published fast-selling Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives.
  
• Central Calcutta area Battala
  
• Jyotiba Phule, Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871)
  
• In 20^th century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) in Madras
  
• Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938
  
• The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavitayan.
  
• Thomas Macaulay (liberal colonial official) formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms
  
• Vernacular press became nationalist, government brought stringent measures
  
• 1878 – Vernacular Press Act was passed modelled on Irish Press Laws
  
• When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.
  

Chapter 8: Novels, Society and History

• Novels created flexibility in writing forms
  
• Walter Scott – collected popular Scottish ballads which he used in his historical novels about the wars between Scottish clans.
  
• Epistolary novel (series of letters) used the private and personal form of letters to tell its story.
  
• 1740 –started circulating libraries
  
• Why novels were popular?
  
  • Novels were absorbing, believable and real
    
  • Could transport you to another person’s world of thought
    
  • Looked at life as it was experienced by characters of novel
    
  • Pleasure and joy of reading and discussing stories
    
  • Rural areas – people collected and one would hear them aloud
    
• George Eliot (1819-1880) was the pen-name of Mary Ann Evans - very popular novelist, she believed that novels gave women a special opportunity to express themselves freely.
  
• Bharatendu Harishchandra – pioneer of Hindi Literature encouraged writers and creators to translate novels from other languages
  
• Colonial administrators found ‘vernacular’ novels a valuable source of information on native life and customs
  
• Expressed dressing, religious worship, beliefs and practices
  
• Criticize defects in the society and suggest remedies for the same
  
• Helps to establish relation with the past
  
• Created collective belonging based on one’s language
  
• The way characters spoke in a novel began to indicate their region, class or caste
  

-------------------------------------------------------

Table of Author, Novel and Date

Table of Author, Novel And Date

Author		Novel		Date
Emile Zola		Germinal		1885
Life of a young miner in France explores in harsh detail grim conditions of miners’ lives. It ends on a note of despair: strike the hero leads fails, his co-workers turn against him, and hopes are shattered.
Hardy		Mayor of Casterbridge		1886
About Michael Henchard, a successful grain merchant, who becomes the mayor of the farming town of Casterbridge. He is an independent-minded man who follows his own style in conducting business. He can also be both unpredictably generous and cruel with his employees. Consequently, he is no match for his manager and rival Donald Farfrae (runs his business on efficient managerial lines, is smooth and even-tempered). We can see that Hardy mourns the loss of the more personalized world that is disappearing, even as he is aware of its problems and the advantages of the new order. Novels used vernacular (language of common man) – created shared world within diverse population – combined classical language with language of streets.
R.L. Stevenson		Treasure Island		1883
Rudyard Kipling		Jungle Book		1894
Powerful, assertive, independent and daring – full of adventure - heroic and honorable
G.A. Henty		Drake’s Flag		1883
Historical adventure novels for boys -excitement and adventure of conquering strange lands. They were set in Mexico, Alexandria, Siberia and many other countries. About young boys who witness grand historical events, get involved in some military action and show what they called ‘English’ courage. Two young Elizabethan adventurers face their apparently approaching death, but still remember to assert their Englishness
Helen Hunt Jackson		Ramona		1884
Sarah Chauncey Woolsey (pen name Susan Coolidge)		What Katy Did		1872
Love stories in USA
Daniel Defoe		Robinson Crusoe		1719
The hero is an adventurer and slave trader. Shipwrecked on an island, Crusoe treats colored people not as human beings equal to him, but as inferior creatures. He rescues a ‘native’ and makes him his slave and gives him the name “Friday” – this was unacceptable behavior as most writers saw colonialism as natural
Baba Padmanji		Yamuna Paryatan		1857
The earliest novel in Marathi was which used a simple style of storytelling to speak about the plight of widows.
Lakshman Moreshwar Halbe		Muktamala		1861
It was not a realistic novel; it presented an imaginary ‘romance’ narrative with a moral purpose.
Naro Sadashiv Risbud		Manjughosha		1868
Used a highly ornamental style in his Marathi novel filled with amazing events
O. Chandu Menon		Indulekha		1889
A subjudge from Malabar, tried to translate English novel called Henrietta Temple written by Benjamin Disraeli into Malayalam – but people in Kerala found their clothes, speaking etc. as boring. He wrote a story in Malayalam in the ‘manner of English novel books’. This delightful novel called Indulekha, was the first modern novel in Malayalam.
Kandukuri Viresalingam(1848-1919)		Rajasekhara Caritamu		1878
From Andhra Pradesh began translating Oliver Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield into Telugu. He abandoned this plan for similar reasons and instead wrote an original Telugu novel called Rajasekhara Caritamu in 1878.
Srinivas Das		Pariksha-Guru (Master Examiner)		1882
First proper modern novel was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. His novel cautioned young men of well-to-do families against the dangerous influences of bad company and consequent loose morals – reflect inner and outer world of emerging middle class – adopt colonized society and preserve cultural identity Teach right way to live – take new agricultural technology, modernize trading practice, change use of Indian languages & transmit Western Sciences and Indian wisdom – all this must be achieved without sacrificing the traditional values of the middle-class household
Devaki Nandan Khatri		Chandrakanta
A romance with dazzling elements of fantasy – is believed to have contributed immensely in popularizing the Hindi language & Nagari script among the educated classes of those times.
Premchand		Sewasadan (The Abode of Service)		1916
Premchand started in Urdu and then in Hindi – in art of kissa-goi (story-telling). His novel lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralizing and simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary people and social issues – dealt with poor conditions of women in society, child marriage and dowry
Rajanikanta Bardoloi		Manomati		1900
He wrote the first major historical novel in Assam. It is set in the Burmese invasion, stories of which the author had probably heard from old soldiers who had fought in the 1819 campaign. It is a tale of two lovers belonging to two hostile families who are separated by the war and finally reunited.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay		Durgeshnandini		1865
He would host a jatra in the courtyard where members of the family would be gathered. In Bankim’s room, however, a group of literary friends would collect to read, discuss and judge literary works. Bankim read out Durgeshnandini, his first novel, to such a gathering of people who were stunned to realize that the Bengali novel had achieved excellence so quickly. Prose style in novels, initially it was colloquial style and used meyeli (language associated with women’s speech) – the style was replaced by Bankim’s prose which was Sanskritized. By 20th century, power of telling stories in simple language made Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay (1876-1938) the most popular novelist in Bengal and probably in the rest of India.
Rokeya Hossein (1880-1932)		Sultana’s Dream		1905
Was a reformer who, after she was widowed, started a girl’s school in Calcutta. She wrote a satiric (criticism of society in witty manner) fantasy in English which shows a topsy-turvy world in which women take the place of men. Her novel Padmarag also showed the need for women to reform their condition by their own actions
Gulavadi Venkata Rao		Indirabai		1899
The heroine is given away in marriage at a very young age to an elderly man. Her husband dies soon after, and she is forced to lead the life of a widow. In spite of opposition from her family and society, Indirabai succeeds in continuing her education Central dilemma faced by colonial subjects - how to be modern without rejecting tradition, how to accept ideas coming from the West without losing one’s identity
Chandu Menon		Indulekh
A love story. Nambuthiri, the foolish landlord who comes to marry Indulekha, is the focus of much satire in the novel. The intelligent heroine rejects him and chooses Madhavan, the educated and handsome Nayar as her husband, and the young couple move to Madras, where Madhavan joins the civil service. Concerned the marriage practices of upper-caste Hindus in Kerala, especially the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars. Nambuthiris were also major landlords in Kerala at that time; and a large section of the Nayars were their tenants. Young generation of Nayars occupied property and wealth and argued against Nambuthiri alliances with Nayar women. Chandu Menon portrayed Indulekha as a woman of breathtaking beauty, high intellectual abilities, artistic talent, and with an education in English and Sanskrit. Madhavan, the hero of the novel, was also presented in ideal colours. He was a member of the newly English-educated class of Nayars from the University of Madras. He was also a ‘first-rate Sanskrit scholar’. He dressed in Western clothes. But, at the same time, he kept a long tuft of hair, according to the Nayar custom.
Jane Austen		Pride and Prejudice
19th century Britain - give us a glimpse of the world of women in genteel rural society – look for good marriages and find wealthy husbands – “single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife”
Charlotte Bronte	Jane Eyre		1847
Dealt with women who broke existing norms Young Jane is shown as independent and assertive. While girls of her time were expected to be quiet and well behaved, Jane at the age of ten protests against the hypocrisy of her elders with startling bluntness; against her aunt and calls her deceitful
Ramashankar Ray		Saudamani		1877-78
A dramatist, began serializing the first Oriya novel, Saudamani but could not complete it.
Fakir Mohon Senapati (1843-1918)	Chaa Mana Atha Guntha		1902
Orissa produced a major novelist. It translates as six acres and thirty-two decimals of land. It announces a new kind of novel that will deal with the question of land and its possession. It is the story of Ramchandra Mangaraj, a landlord’s manager who cheats his idle and drunken master and then eyes the plot of fertile land owned by Bhagia and Shariya, a childless weaver couple.
Charles Dickens		Hard Times		1854
Against industrialization in his novel describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple and buildings that all looked the same. Workers are known as ‘hands’, as if they had no identity other than as operators of machines. Humans were reduced to simple instruments.
Charles Dickens		Oliver Twist		1838
Explained terrible condition of urban life under capitalism - tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and beggars. Brought up in a cruel workhouse, Oliver was finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after
Hannah Mullens		Karuna o Phulmonir Bibaran		1852
A Christian missionary, reputedly the first novel in Bengali, tells her readers that she wrote in secret.
Advaita Malla Burman’s (1914-51)		Titash Ekti Nadir Naam		1956
It is an epic about Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in river Titash. The novel is about three generations of the Mallas, about their recurring tragedies and the story of Ananta, a child born of parents who were tragically separated after their wedding night. He leaves community to get educated in the city – as river dries the community dies.
Potheri Kunjambu		Saraswativijayam		1892
A ‘lower-caste’ writer from north Kerala mounted a strong attack on caste oppression. This novel shows a young man from an ‘untouchable’ caste, leaving his village to escape the cruelty of his Brahmin landlord. He converts to Christianity and gets education. Explains education of upliftment of lower castes.
Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer (1908-94)
Was one of the early Muslim writers to gain wide renown as a novelist in Malayalam. He didn’t had much formal education and most works were based on rich personal experience. He took part in Salt Satyagarha and he wrote short novels and stories. Brought in his writings – poverty, insanity and life in prisons.
Bhudeb Mukhopadhyay (1827-94)		Anguriya Binimoy		1857
Was the first historical novel written in Bengal. Its hero Shivaji engages in many battles against a clever and treacherous Aurangzeb. Man Singh persuades Shivaji to make peace with Aurangzeb. Realizing that Aurangzeb intended to confine him as a house prisoner, Shivaji escapes and returns to battle. What gives him courage and tenacity is his belief that he is a nationalist fighting for the freedom of Hindus.
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (1912-99),		Chemmeen (Shrimp)		1956
It is set in fishing community in Kerala, and characters speak a variety of Malayalam used by fisherfolk in the region. The film Chemmeen, directed by Ramu Kariat, was made in 1965.
Bankim		Anandamath		1882
It is a novel about a secret Hindu militia that fights Muslims to establish a Hindu kingdom. It was a novel that inspired many kinds of freedom fighters.
Premchand		Rangbhoomi (The Arena)
It has characters that create a community based on democratic values. Central character, Surdas, is a visually impaired beggar from a so-called ‘untouchable’ caste. The very act of choosing such a person as the ‘hero’ of a novel is significant. It makes the lives of the most oppressed section of society as worthy of literary reflection. His novels are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels of society. He rejected nostalgic obsession with history. His novels look towards the future without forgetting the importance of the past.
Premchand		Godan (gift of Cow)		1936
It is his best known work. It is an epic of the Indian peasantry. Novel tells the moving story of Hori and his wife Dhania, a peasant couple. Landlords, moneylenders, priests and colonial bureaucrats – all those who hold power in society – form a network of oppression, rob their land and make them into landless laborers. Yet Hori and Dhania retain their dignity to the end.
Rabindranath Tagore		Ghare Baire		1916
It were historical and later based on domestic relationships and focused on women and nationalism. Concerns are featured in his Ghare Baire (1916) translated in 1919 as The Home and the World. The story is about Bimala, wife of Nikhilesh, a liberal landlord who believes that he can save his country by patiently bettering the lives of its poor and marginal sections. But Bimala is attracted to Sandip, her husband’s friend and a firebrand extremist. Sandip is so completely dedicated to throwing out the British that he does not mind if the poor ‘low’ castes suffer and Muslims are made to feel like outsiders. By becoming a part of Sandip’s group, Bimala gets a sense of self-worth and self-esteem. Bimala may be admired by the young males of the group but she cannot influence their decisions. Indeed, she is used by Sandip to acquire funds for the movement. Tagore’s novels make us rethink both man-woman relationships and nationalism

•