NCERT Class 7 History

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 1: Tracing Changes through a Thousand Year

Al-Idrisi - Arab Geographer

• South on the top
• Small section of larger map
• Solely concerned with portraying geography – No Imagery & text
• Considered most accurate till 3 centuries

Then French Geographer – 1720s

• Mentioned Kannauj (UP)
• Used by European sailors
• Atlas Nouveau by Guillaume de l’Isle – Europe & Americas

Medieval IndiaModern IndiaHindustanIndiaMinhaj-i-Siraj

Sources

• Coins
• Inscriptions
• Architecture
• Textual Records – Paper getting cheaper
• Manuscripts – by Hand – No printing press – By (Scribes – copyist) – Writings nashtaliq (cursive & easy) & Shikaste (dense & difficult)
• Archives – Place to store Manuscripts

Innovations

• Persian Wheel – Irrigation
• Spinning Wheel – Weaving
• Firearms – Combat
• New Crops – Potato, Corn, Chilly, Tea, Coffee

Social Groups

• Rajputs – “Rajputras” – Kshatriya – Valor & Loyality
• Marathas
• Sikhs
• Jats
• Ahoms
• Kayasthas (caste of scribe and secretaries)

Social Differentiation

• Based on jati/sub-caste, occupation and background
• Jati – Own rules
• Jati Panchayats – villages governed by chieftain

Regional Expanse

Image of Regional Expanse
Image of Regional Expanse

Expanse of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq’s empire Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87): From Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west and included all of south India (Dravida). People of Gauda, Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat fled before his armies.

After Mughal Decline in 18^th Century – Regional States

Image of After Mughal Decline in 18th Regional States
Kingdoms

Image of Specify New Kings and Kingdoms in Map
Image of Specify New Kings And Kingdoms In Map

• Samanta →

• Maha-Samanta or Maha-Mandaleshwara (great lord of circle)
• Rashtrakuta were subordinate to Chalukyas (Karnataka) – Dantidurga (Rashtrakuta chief) performed hiranya-garbha (golden womb) with Brahamanas – rebirth of Kshatriya
• Kadamba Mayurasharman (Karnataka) & Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra (Rajasthan) were Brahmanas who became warriors
• Vishnu as Narasimha, man-lion – Ellora cave – Rashtrakuta
• Gurjara-Pratihara style of temple building - Khajuraho (UNESCO World Heritage Site)

Administration

• Title: Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings)
• Title: Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds)
• Tax: Vetti - taken not in cash but in the form of forced labour
• Tax: Kadamai or land revenue

Tax to:

• Finance establishment
• Construct temples
• Fight wars

Kings Rewarded Brahamanas with Grant of Land – on Copper Plates (With Royal Seal) – Partly Sanskrit & Tamil

Kings Rewarded Brahamanas with Grant – on Copper Plates
Image of Kings Rewarded Brahamanas With Grant of Land – on Copper Plates

Warfare

• Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kannauj – 3 parties - “tripartite struggle”
• Power demonstration by Big Temples
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan (997 to 1030) - Central Asia, Iran and NW India – raided Somnath – had scholar Al-Biruni wrote Kitab-al-Hind (consulted Sanskrit scholars)
• Chahamanas (Chauhans) - Delhi and Ajmer – attempted to control Chalukyas of Gujarat & Gahadavalas of western UP. Prithviraja III (1168-1192) - defeated Afghan ruler Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him in 1192

Cholas

Image of Cholas
Image of Cholas

• Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta - subordinate to Pallava kings of Kanchipuram
• Vijayalaya (from ancient chiefly family of Cholas from Uraiyur) - captured delta from Muttaraiyar in the middle of 9^th century & build Thanjavur town and temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini
• Rajaraja-I – most powerful ruler of Cholas – king in 985 – his son Rajendra I did navy expeditions and expanded kingdom
• Temples – Center of Craft (Thanjavur & Gangaikonda-cholapuram temples built by Rajaraja and Rajendra)
• Chola bronze images - amongst the finest in the world (mainly deities & also devotees)
• Channels with fertile soil - agriculture & rice production

Agriculture:

• Forest cleared
• Land levelled
• Embankments made to prevent flooding
• Canal construction – irrigation
• Tanks – rainwater collection

Administration in Cholas

• Ur: Settlement of peasants
• Nadu: Group of villages (justice & tax collection) – supervised by Vellala caste (rich peasants)
• Rich landowners’ titles - muvendavelan (velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief) – in respect
• Land
• Vellanvagai: land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors
• Brahmadeya: land gifted to Brahmanas
• Shalabhoga: land for the maintenance of a school
• Devadana, tirunamattukkani: land gifted to temples
• Pallichchhandam: land donated to Jaina institutions

Requirements for Members of Sabha:

• Owners of land from which land revenue is collected.
• Own homes.
• Age 35 to 70 years
• Knowledge of the Vedas.
• Well-versed in administrative matters and honest.
• If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he cannot become a member of another committee.
• Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections
• Periyapuranam 12^th Century Tamil work – On lives of ordinary men and women
• China – Tang Dynasty (300 years from 7^th to 10^th century) – Capital Xi’an - administered by bureaucracy recruited by an examination – till 1911.

Delhi Sultans NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 3: The Delhi Sultans

Delhi

• 1^st capital under Tomara Rajputs in 12^th Century (defeated by Chauhans of Ajmer)
• Coins minted – called Delhiwal
• Jain merchants center
• As a sultanate empire in 13^th Century
• Histories called tarikh (singular) / tawarikh (plural) in Persian by learned scholars – lived in cities, wrote for good rewards & maintain social order on birth right and gender distinctions (1236: Raziya daughter of Iltutmish became emperor but was removed in 1240 - Minhaj-i Siraj, recognized that she was more able and qualified than all her brothers)
• Rudramadevi (1262-1289), of Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, part of modern Andhra Pradesh – Pretended as male and changed name
• Queen Didda in Kashmir (980-1003) has title “didi” or “elder sister” - loved ruler by her subjects.

Prepare Manuscript

• Prepare Paper
• Write text
• Melt gold
• Prepare Binding

Circle of Justice

Kings requires→
Soldiers requires→ Salaries from→ Revenue (by peasants) pays→ Happy happenswhen→ king promotes justice

Image of India Habitat Centre
Image of India Habitat Centre

Comparison of Medieval and Modern Cities- Hampi, Surat, Masulipatnam
Image of Comparison of Medieval And Modern Cities Hampi Surat Masulipatnam

• 13^th Century: Delhi was fortified town occupied by garrisons, seldom control on hinterland – dependent on trade, tribute and plunder for supplies
• Expansion occurred during Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq
• Consolidating hinterlands of Ganga-Yamuna doab – given to peasants and agriculture.
• New fortresses and towns were established to protect trade routes and to promote regional trade.
• Second expansion: External frontier & military expedition in south – army captured horses, elephants and slaves.

Alauddin Khilji’S Campaign

Image of Alauddin Khilji's Campaign
Image of Alauddin Khilji's Campaign

Mosque & Masjids

• Quwwat al-Islam mosque and minaret: Built in 12^th Century as congregational mosque described in chronicles as Dehli-i-kuhna (the old city). Enlarged by Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji. Minar was built by three Sultans– Qutbuddin Aybak, Iltutmish and Firuz Shah Tughluq
• Begumpuri mosque: By Muhammad Tughluq - main mosque of Jahanpanah, “Sanctuary of World”, his new capital in Delhi.
• Moth ki Masjid: Built in the reign of Sikandar Lodi by his minister
• Congregational mosque: Muslims read their prayers (namaz) together. Members choose most respected, learned male as their leader (imam) for rituals. He also delivers sermon (khutba) during Friday prayer. During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. In India this is to the west. This is called the qibla.
• Mosque demonstrated their claims to be protectors of Islam and Muslims
• Provides community feeling

Khiljis & Tughluqs

• Delhi Sultans especially Iltutmish: Favored their special slaves purchased for military service - bandagan in Persian – political offices & were trustworthy
• Raised people of humble birth, who were often their clients (under protection of another), to high political positions – governors and generals
• Clients loyal to patrons and not to heirs
• New Sultans had own servants
• Conflict between new and old nobility
• Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar (wine distiller), Firuz Hajjam (barber), Mank a Tabbakh (cook), and two gardeners, Ladha and Pira, to high administrative posts
• Military commanders: lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti – led military campaign and collected revenue as salary – collected taxes only by state
• Sultans forced landed chieftains (samanta aristocrats) & rich landlords to accept their authority
• Taxes: Cultivation called kharaj 50% of peasant’s produce, on cattle and on houses
• Distant provinces became independent

Mongols

• Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in northeast Iran in 1219
• Attacks increased during Allauddin Khalji (mobilized army with high administrative charges)

Table of Mongols InformationTable of Mongols Information

Alauddin Khalji	Muhammad Tughluq
Delhi attacked twice. Maintained huge army	Mongols defeated Maintained huge army
Constructed garrison town - Siri	Oldest of 4 cities – Delhi-i-Kuhna was emptied, residents of old city were sent to new capital of Daulatabad in south
Soldiers fed by taxes collected from land between doab (50%)	Produce from same area was collected as tax to feed army
Soldiers paid in cash	Soldiers paid in cash
Prices of goods were controlled	Token currency introduced
Administrative measures were successful	Administrative measures were failure – Kashmir campaigns were disaster & token currency was recalled

Sayyids & Lodis

• Ruled until 1526
• Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa etc. were independent states
• New rulers like Afghans and Rajputs
• Sher Shah Sur challenged Humayun (captured Delhi and ruled for 15 years as Suri dynasty) – Administrative styles were followed by Akbar

Three Orders

• First formulated in France in early 11^th century. Society into three classes: those who prayed, those who fought, and those who tilled the land. Supported by Church. Emergence of warriors called knights.
• Idea of “Peace of God”. Direct warriors against conflict and send them to campaign against Mulsims captured in Jerusalem (Crusades). Knights did not belong to class of nobles.

Mughal Empire NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 4: The Mughal Empire

• Expanded kingdom from 16^th to 17^th Century
• PM address Independence Day Speech from Red Fort (Residence of Mughal Emperors)

Mother (Genghis Khan)Timur (Father)Mongol Tribes, C. Asia & ChinaMughalsIran, Iraq & TurkeyMassacre of innumerable peopleAncestors captured Delhi in 1398Rivals were Uzbegs

Image of Political Map of Asia
Image of Political Map of Asia

Ancestry

Miran ShahSultan Muhammad MirzaAbu SaidUmar ShaikhBaburHumayunAkbarJahangirShah JahanAurangzeb

Babur

• Succeeded to throne at 12 years
• 1^st on throne of Ferghana in 1494
• Uzbegs invaded and was forced to leave
• Seized Kabul in 1504
• 1526: Defeated Ibram Lodi in Battle of Panipat
• Captured Agra & Delhi
• Afghans were threat to Mughals
• 1527: Defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanua
• 1528: Defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi

Humayun

• Divided inheritance based on father’s will
• Each brother given a province
• Sher Khan defeated him at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540)
• He fled to Iran
• Got help from Safavid Shah
• Recaptured Delhi in 1555
• Died in Accident

Akbar

• Emperor at 13 years
• Under Bairam Khan – Campiagns against Suris and Afghans
• Suppressed revolt of his half-brother Mirza Hakim & Uzbegs
• 1568: Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized
• 1569: Ranthambhor was seized
• Military campaigns to Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal & Odisha
• Expansion of empire to NW
• Qandahar was seized from the Safavids
• Kashmir was annexed
• Kabul annexed after death of Mirza Hakim
• Annexed Deccan, Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar
• Ibadat khana: various religious people discussed (religious scholars who emphasised ritual and dogma were often bigots)
• Sulh-i-Kul or universal peace – ethics, honesty and peace – was followed by Jahangir & Shah Jahan

Image of Specify Mughal Empire in Map
Image of Specify Mughal Empire In Map

Jahangir

• Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh accepted his rule
• Known as Prince Salim
• Wife: Nur Jahan (Mehrunnisa) – loyal & supportive – had seals and coins with her name

Shah Jahan

• Prince Khurram
• Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi was defeated
• Qandahar was lost to Safavids
• 1632: Annexed Ahmadnagar
• Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers, including Dara Shukoh were killed
• Was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra

Aurangzeb

• 1663: Ahoms defeated but rebelled again in 1680
• Initially successful against Shivaji (insulted him when he came to accept Mughal authority)
• Sent armies to Deccan
• 1685: Bijapur annexed
• 1687: Golconda annexed
• 1698: Against Marathas who followed guerrilla warfare
• After his death, succession conflict amongst his sons

Succession

• Primogeniture: Eldest son inherited his father’s estate
• Coparcenary inheritance or division of inheritance amongst all the sons – Mughals

Relations to Other Rulers

• Jahangir’s mother: Kachhwaha princess, daughter of Rajput ruler of Amber
• Shah Jahan’s mother: Rathor princess, daughter of Rajput ruler of Marwar
• Sisodiyas did not accept Mughal authority – defeated once by Mughals but land (watan) given back as assignments (watan jagir)
• In Mughal Service: Mansabdars (hold rank mansab)
• Grading system used by Mughals to fix rank, salary & military responsibilities
• Rank & salary determined by Zat
• Higher Zat, more prestigious position with larger salary
• Maintain cavalry or sawar
• Mansabdars got salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs similar to iqtas. However, unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their jagirs.
• Akbar’s period: jagirs were assessed
• Aurangzeb’s period: actual sum was less than granted sum & huge number of mansabdars. Long wait & shortage of jagirs. Peasantry suffered a lot.

Zabt & Zamindars

Major tax was on produce of peasantry
Taxes paid by rural elite
Zamindars were intermediaries
Todarmal (revenue minister of Akbar) carried crop survey – tax fixed on each crop in cash
Province divided into revenue circle with revenue rates – Zabt – not possible in Gujarat & Bengal
Provinces divided into subas & subas had subedars (political & military functions), diwans (financial)

• Military paymaster (bakhshi)
• Minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr)
• Military commanders (faujdars)
• Town police commander (kotwal)

Abul Fazal wrote Akbar Nama in 3 volumes

• Volume 1: Akbar’s ancestors
• Volume 2: Event of Akbar’s reign
• Volume 3: Ain-i-Akbari – Administration and revenue & cultural details – statistics on crops and yields

Shah Jahan period: 5.6% mansabdars received 61.5% of total revenue.
Most income was spent on salary and goods – benefitted artisans and peasantry
Poorest lived from hand to mouth – economic strata created
Mughal elite became very powerful
Mughals declined and servants became powerful – dynasties like Awadh and Hyderabad came into power

Worldwide

• Queen Elizabeth I (dynasty Tudors) – conflict b/w Catholics and Protestants (reformed church) – tried to establish independence of Church of England from Rome
• Conflicted with Phillip II from Spain & defeated them
• Supported playwrighters like Shakespeare & poets like Edward Spenser (wrote epic poem called The Faerie Queene in her praise)

Contemporaries of Akbar

• Ottoman Turkey, Sultan Suleyman: Al-Qanuni or lawgiver (1520-1566)
• Safavid ruler of Iran: Shah Abbas (1588-1629)
• Russian ruler, Czar Ivan IV Vasilyevich or “Ivan the terrible” (1530-1584)

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 5: Rulers and Buildings1^st Balcony of Qutb Minar made by Qutbuddin Aybak in 1199 – small arches, geometrical designs

Kinds of Structures:

Image of Kinds of Structures
Image of Kinds of Structures

Agra Fort by Akbar: 2,000 stone-cutters, 2,000 cement and lime-makers and 8,000 laborers.

Engineering Skills

• Roof with beams
• Slab of stones with 4 walls
• Large room with superstructure (part of building above ground floor) – more sophisticated
• B/w 7^th -10^th century: More rooms, doors & windows added
• “Trabeate” or “corbelled” architecture: Placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns – in temple, mosque, tom & large stepped wells

Image of Trabeate and Corbelled Architecture
Image of Trabeate And Corbelled Architecture

• Arcuate: “true” arch and “keystone” at the centre of arch transferred weight of superstructure to base of arch.
• Limestone cement mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete

Temple Construction in 11^th Century

• Symbol of power, wealth and devotion of the patron
• Largest temples were all constructed by kings
• Kandariya Mahadeva temple (Shiva Temple): Constructed in 999 by King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty. Ornamental gateway led to an entrance & main hall (mahamandapa) where dances were performed. Chief deity was kept in the main shrine (garbhagriha) – where king and immediate family gathered
• Khajuraho complex contained royal temples where commoners were not allowed entry.
• Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time – had no cranes & idea was to lift 90 ton stone for top of shikhara (with inclined path of 4 km & boulders were rolled to the top). Even now a village near the temple is called Charupallam, the “Village of the Incline”. Built by King Rajarajadeva to worship god, Rajarajeshvaram. King took the name of God & wanted to appear like God.

Mosques

• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god but Persian court chronicles described Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
• God chose Alauddin as a king because he had the qualities of Moses and Solomon, the great law-givers of the past.
• Greatest law-giver and architect was God Himself.
• Introduced order & symmetry
• Ab means water – abad (populated) & abadi (flourishing)
• Rulers tried to transform capitals into cultural centers
• Sultan Iltutmish won universal respect for constructing large reservoir just outside Delhi-i kuhna known as hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir”.

Why Temples Were Destroyed?

• Kings demonstrated power by temples and it was targeted 9^th century: Pandyan king Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated king, Sena I – removed gold & Buddha statue Sena II invaded Madurai, capital of Pandyas (to find & restore gold statue of Buddha)
• 11^th century: Chola king Rajendra I built Shiva temple & filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers like Sun-pedestal, Ganesha, Durga, Nandi from Chalukyas; image of Bhairava and Bhairavi from Kalingas of Orissa; and Kali statue from Palas of Bengal
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was contemporary of Rajendra I. He looted Somnath

Gardens, Tombs & Forts

• Mughal architecture was more complicated. Babur laid formal gardens, rectangular enclosures, chahar Bagh (4 gardens with symmetrical division of quarters – later by Shah Jahan & Jahangir)
• Akbar’s architects turned to tombs of his Central Asian ancestor, Timur
• Humayun Tomb: Central towering dome & tall gateway (pishtaq), placed in chachar bagh built in tradition known as “eight paradises” or hasht bihisht, central hall surrounded by eight rooms. Building was constructed with red sandstone, edged with white marble.
• Shah Jahan: fused Mughal architectural elements, construction in Delhi & Agra, ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i khas or am) or chihil sutun or 40-pillared halls within a large courtyard. Audience hall was similar to mosque. Pedestal where throne was placed was called qibla (direction faced by Muslims during prayer)
• Red Fort: Series of pietra dura inlays depicting legendary Greek god Orpheus playing the lute behind emperor’s throne. Shah Jahan’s audience hall communicated that king’s justice would treat high & low as equals where all could live together in harmony. Initial capital was Agra with Taj Mahal, white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. It was completed in 1643.
• New city of Shahjahan abad constructed in Delhi, imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only specially favoured nobles – like his eldest son Dara Shukoh – were given access to the river, rest all had to construct their homes in the city away from River Yamuna

Intermingling

• In Vijayanagara, elephant stables of rulers were strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golcunda.
• In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri. Style of architecture is from NW Iran (Khurasan) for high ceiling roof and was used in Fatehpur Sikri.
• Cross fertilization of architectural forms took place
• Bengal – local rulers developed roof designed to resemble thatched hut, Mughals used this Bangla Dome.
• Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri - impact of architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa
• 12^th century: France build churches that were taller and lighter than earlier buildings. Gothic style had high pointed arches, use of stained glass, often painted with scenes drawn from the Bible, and flying buttresses. Tall spires and bell towers were visible from a distance were added to the church – Notre Dame Church in Paris

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 6: Towns, Traders and Craftspersons

Major Artisan Towns

Image of Major Artisan Towns
Image of Major Artisan Towns

Administrative Towns

• Thanjavur – Capital of Cholas, At Kaveri River, Home to Rajarajeshwara temple by King Rajaraja Chola - architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan – temple has palaces with mandapas & barracks for army, water comes from wells, Saliyar weavers – cloth for flags in temples
• At Svamimalai: Sthapatis or sculptors make bronze idols & ornamental bell metal lamps

Temple Towns

• Center of economic activity
• Rulers built temples to demonstrate devotion to God
• Endowed with grants of land & money to carry rituals
• People brought in huge donations
• Temples used wealth to finance trade & banking
• For example: Thanjavur; Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha, MP); Somnath in Gujarat; Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu; Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh
• Pilgrimage centers developed as tonwships: Varanasi (UP), Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu), Ajmer (Rajasthan) – Chauhans till 12^th Century & then Mughals – Puskhar & Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti Dargah

Bronze

• Copper + Tin
• Tin>>>Copper = Bell Metal – bell like sound
• Lost Wax Technique – Statue made of wax coated with clay, Then heated and wax removed through a hole. Liquid metal filled in through the same hole & clay removed.

Trade & Small Towns

Villages→LargeVillages

Mandapikamandi,MarketStreet(hatta)

• Trading Commodities: horses, salt, camphor, saffron, betel nut and spices like pepper
• Samanta (Zamindar) – build fortified towns, levied taxes on traders & donated right to collect taxes to temples
• Traders travelled in caravans and formed guilds (Manigramam and Nanadesi) to protect their interests
• Major Traders:
  
  • Chettiars and Marwari Oswal
  • Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras
• Indian sold textiles and spices & brought gold and ivory from Africa; spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver from SE Asia and China
• Species became a delicacy in European cooking
• Kabul and Qandahar were linked to Silk Route – trade by Horses

Crafts

• Craftwork from Bidar – Bidri on copper & silver
• Panchal as or Vishwakkarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronze smiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the building of temples
• Weavers like Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities
• Murshidabad (West Bengal) on Bhagirathi River was major centre for silks and capital of Bengal in 1704, declined later by competition from cheap mill-made cloth from England.

Architecture

Hampi

• Lies in Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, as nucleus of Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 1336. Was fortified city with no mortar or cement but only by interlocking?
• Had arches, domes and pillared halls, pleasure gardens – Moors (Muslim Merchants), Chettis & Portuguese traders were commonly seen
• Temples had cultural activities, devadasis (temple dancers) in Virupaksha (Shiva) temple, Mahanavmi or Navratri is celebrated in south
• Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans – the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.

Surat

• Emporium of western trade during Mughal period
• Gateway of trade with West Asia via Gulf of Omruz
• Gate to Mecca
• Portuguese, Dutch and English had factories and warehouses
• Textile was known
• Zari work (gold lace) had market in West Asia, Africa and Europe
• Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) had huge banking houses
• Surat hundis (note recording a deposit made by a person) were honored far and wide in Cairo - Egypt, Basra – Iraq & Antwerp – Belgium
• Declined in 17^th century due to loss of market and productivity due to decline of Mughal empire & East India Company shifted its HQs to Mumbai

Masulipatnam (Machlipatnam)

• Delta of Krishna River on 17^th century
• Both Dutch & English East India Company tried to control it
• Major Port of Golconda, Andhra Pradesh
• Fort built by Dutch
• Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices and other items to prevent trade passing completely into East India Companies.
• Competition occurred amongst Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders
• Later Aurangzeb annexed Golconda & Europeans started to look for alternatives
• It declined in 18^th century

New Towns & Traders

• 16-17^th century – European leaders looking for species & textiles
• East India Company – by English, French & Dutch
• Indian Traders Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora with large number of ships competed with European companies
• English emerged as most successful
• Weavers had to reproduce designs supplied by English people
• 18^th Century – Bombay, Madras & Calcutta became nodal centers – artisans and merchants were moved to Black Towns established within new cities
• “White” rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.

Discoveries

Vasco Da Gama – Portuguese sailor, reached Calicut in 1498 and returned to Lisbon, lost two ships & only 54 of 170 men survived, later English, Dutch & French sailors reached there

Image of Vasco Da Gama Discoveries
Image of Vasco Da Gama Discoveries

Columbus – considering earth to be round sailed westwards to Atlantic Ocean to find route to India – In 1492 reached West Indies – later Spain & Portugal sailors reached there

Image of Christopher Columbus Voyages
Image of Christopher Columbus Voyages

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 7: Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

• Societies evolved by Varna System as prescribed by Brahamanas
• Tribes: Not divided into unequal classes. Members were united under kinship bonds – agriculture, hunter, gatherer or herder, they were nomadic and controlled land and pastures jointly.
• Tribes lived in forest, hills, desert and places difficult to reach, tribes retained their freedom & preserved separate culture
• Tribes did not keep written records and preserved rich customs and oral traditions
• Powerful tribes controlled large areas. Punjab – 13^th and 14^th century – Khokhar tribes and later Gakkhar tribes (Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was made noble by Emperor Akbar)
• Multan & Sindh - Langahs and Arghuns tribes; Balochis were powerful in NW & divided into smaller clans (group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor)
• Western Himalayas – Gaddi Tribes
• North East - Nagas, Ahoms tribes
• Bihar & Jharkhand – Cheros Tribes (Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s general defeated Cheros in 1591)
• Orissa & Bengal – Mundas & Santhals
• Maharashtra, Karnataka & Gujarat – Kolis
• South India - Koragas, Vetars, Maravars
• Western & Central India – Bhils
• Chhattisgarh, MP, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh – Gonds

Image of Tribes Nomads and Settled Communities Class
Image of Tribes Nomads And Settled Communities Class

Moving People

• Nomadic Pastoralists - moved long distances with animals
• Lived on milk and pastoral products
• Exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils
• Banjaras – trader nomads, caravans known as tanda, they bought grains where it was cheaper and sold where it was dearer - Alauddin Khalji used Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets, transported food grains to army during military campaigns
• Itinerant groups: Craftspersons, pedlars and entertainers travel from place to place practising their different occupations
• Both Nomads and Itinerants visited same place every year
• Mendicants acted as wandering merchants

New Castes

• Smaller caste and jatis emerged within varnas
• New caste appeared amongst Brahmans
• Smiths, carpenters and masons were also recognized as separate jatis by Brahmanas
• Jatis & not varna became basis for organizing society
• Rathakaras (chariot makers): Include architecture, building coaches and chariots – as mentioned in Uyyakondan Udaiyar, in Tiruchirapalli taluka
• In Kshatriyas – Rajputs emerged (belonged to different lineages, such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas) – it gave way for tribal population to follow
• Emergence of state is related to social change amongst tribals

Gonds

• Lived in Gondwanaland
• Practiced shifting agriculture
• Each clan had its own raja or rai
• Large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate smaller Gond chiefs
• Akbar Nama, history of Akbar’s reign, mentioned Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages
• Centralized administration with kingdom divided into garh.
• Garh was controlled by Gonds & divided into 84 villages as chaurasi
• Chaurasi further divided into group of 12 villages as barhots
• Society became unequal
• Brahmanas got land grant from Gond rajas and became influential
• Gond chiefs wished to be recognized as Rajputs
• Aman Das, Gond raja of Garha Katanga, assumed title of Sangram Shah
• His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of Mahoba. Dalpat died early but Durgawati was capable and ruled in lieu of 5-year old son, Bir Narain. Mughal forces under Asaf Khan attacked – Durgawati preferred to died rather than surrender and later her son also died.
• Garha Katanga was rich state & earned by trapping and exporting wild elephants to other kingdoms. Mughals captured precious coins and elephants, annexed and granted the rest to Chandra Shah, an uncle of Bir Narain.
• After fall of Garha Katanga, Gond kingdoms survived for some time and became weaker later

Ahoms

• Migrated to Brahmaputra valley form Myanmar in 13^th century
• Created new state of Bhuiyans (landlords)
• 16^th century they annexed kingdoms of Chhutiyas (1523) & Koch-Hajo (1581)
• 1530s: Used firearms
• 1660s: made gunpowder & cannons
• In 1662, Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked Ahoms & defeated them
• State depended on forced labors & those forced to work were called paiks. Each village had to send paiks on rotation
• Early 17^th century: Administration was centralized with all adult males in army during war, at other times in building dams and public work
• Society divided into clans or khels. Khel controlled several villages.
• Initially worshipped tribal gods but later influence of Brahmanas increased & during Sib Singh – Hinduism became common
• Poets and theatre was common
• Work of Sanskrit was translated to local language
• Historical works (buranjis) were written first in Ahom language and then in Assamese

Conclusion

• Varna based society & tribal people interacted
• Many merged with caste based society with time
• Others rejected caste system and Hinduism
• Some became politically powerful

Mongols

• Pastoral and hunter-gatherer tribe
• Inhabited the grasslands (steppes) of Central Asia and the forested areas further north
• By 1206 Genghis Khan had united Mongol and Turkish tribes into a powerful military force. At his death (1227) he was the ruler of extensive territories.
• His successor’s ruled till Russia, Eastern Europe, China and West Asia.
• Organized military and administrative systems based on support of different ethnic and religious groups

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 8: Devotional Path to the Divine

Idea of Supreme God

• Before large kingdoms – idea was about small kingdoms and individual gods and goddesses
• Focus on birth and rebirth
• All human beings are not equal at birth
• Social privilege came from birth in noble family and high caste
• Some turned to Buddha & Jaina teachings
• Others bonded to bhakti (Shiva, Vishnu or Durga) or Bhagavad-Gita
• Methods of worship recommended in Puranas were introduced into the local cults
• Bhakti was adopted by Buddhist & Jainas

Bhakti in South India

• 7^th-9^th Century: Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including “untouchable” like Pulaiyar & Panars
• They were critics of Buddhist and Jainas
• Based on ideals of love and heroism in Sangam literature (earliest example of Tamil literature)
• 63 Nayanars – untouchables and different castes - Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. 2 sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.
• 12 Alvars from equally divergent backgrounds. Best were Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya Prabandham.
• 10^th -12^th century: Chola & Pandya king temples, poems and bhakti traditions – hagiographies (writings of saints lives) or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were composed

Shankara

• Philosophers of Kerala in 8^th century
• Advocate of Advaita or doctrine of oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is Ultimate Reality
• Considered world as illusion or maya
• Preached renunciation of world or adoption of path of knowledge to understand Brahman & attain salvation

Ramanuja

• Born in Tamil Nadu in 11^th Century
• Influenced by Alvars – devotion of Vishnus
• Propounded doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that soul even when united with Supreme God remained distinct
• Inspired bhakti in North India

Image of Poet Saints of India
Image of Poet Saints of India

Virashaiva Movement

• Initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi
• Connection between Tamil bhakti movement and temple worship
• It began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century
• Equality of human beings
• Against Brahmanical ideas of caste
• Against ritual and idol worship

Saints of Maharashtra

• 13^th-17^th century – saint poets – in simple Marathi
• Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram (wrote abhang – Marathi devotional hymns)
• Sakkubai & Chokhamela (women) - “untouchable” Mahar caste
• Focused on Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur
• Rejected ritualism & outward display of piety and social differences based on birth
• Rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families

Sharing Others Pain

Gujarati saint - Narsi Mehta - Vaishnavas who understand the pain of others

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

• Criticized conventional religion and social order
• Advocated renunciation of the world
• For salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and realisation of oneness with it.
• Training mind and body by Yogasanas, breathing exercise and meditation

Islam & Sufism

• Sants had common with Sufis (Muslim mystics)
• Rejected religiosity
• Emphasized love, devotion and compassion
• Strict monotheism or submission to one God
• Rejected idol worship
• Developed holy law Shariat
• Rejected elaborate rituals
• Composed poems and had rich literature
• Great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi
• Training the heart: zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control etc. under guidance of pir
• Silsilas: Genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice
• Sufi centers developed in India under Delhi Sultanate
• Chishti silsila: Most influential orders - teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
• Assemblies were held in khanqahs or hospices – spiritual matters, blessings of saints, music and dance were part of it.
• Sufi saints have miraculous powers that could relieve others of their illnesses and troubles.
• Tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint - place of pilgrimage
• Jalaluddin Rumi was a 13^th century Sufi poet from Iran who wrote in Persian

Religious Development in North India

• Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions
• Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs but wanted to make these accessible to all
• Tulsidas – Wrote Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi (language of eastern UP) – Rama Devotee
• Surdas – Krishna devotee - Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari
• Shankaradeva – Vishnu devotee – Assam – established namghars or houses of recitation and prayer
• Mirabai – Rajput princess married family of Mewar in 16^th century – disciple of Ravidas (untouchable) – Krishna devotee – challenged norms of upper caste & got popular in Rajasthan & Gujarat – mainly works were in regional language and oral
• Kabir - brought up in family of Muslim julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Varanasi - collection of verses called sakhis and pads – later preserved in Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak, ridiculed external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, pre-eminence of priestly classes and caste system & believed in formless supreme God
• Baba Guru Nanak: Born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan), he established centre at Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on Ravi river), followers ate in common kitchen – langar, created sacred space – dharmsal (Gurudwara), before his death in 1539 – appointed Lehna (Guru Angad)
• Guru Angad: Compiled Guru Nanak’s work, added his language Gurumukhi
• Guru Arjan in 1604: 3 successors of Guru Angad wrote under the name of “Nanak” and all of their compositions were compiled
• Guru Gobind Singh: added writings of Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. In 1706, he compiled it as Guru Granth Sahib
• Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple): 17^th century – in town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) – as state within a state. He ordered execution of Guru Arjan in 1606
• Sikh movement got politicized in 17^th century - culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. Community of the Sikhs, called the Khalsa Panth, became a political entity

Guru Nanak Ideas

• Worship of one God
• Caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation
• Idea of active life with social commitment
• Used terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct
• Teachings known as nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which explain right belief and worship, honest living, and helping others

Martin Luther & Reformation

• 16^th century – reformation in Europe
• Against Roman Catholic
• Insisted use of language of ordinary people rather than Latin
• Translated Bible to German
• Opposed practice of indulgences or donations to church
• Spread with growing use of printing press
• Protestants suggest there origin to ideas of Martin Luther

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 9: The Making of Regional Cultures

How to Associate People?

• Language
• Food
• Culture
• Clothing
• Dance and Music
• Regional cultures are product of intermingling of local traditions with ideas from other parts of subcontinent

Cheras

• Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram
• Established in 9^th Century
• In present day Kerala
• Language: Malayalam
• Script: Malayalam
• Earliest example of using regional language in official records
• Temple theatre of Kerala got stories from Sanskrit epics
• 1^st literary work in Malayalam dated to 12^th century
• 14^th century: Lilatilakam, deals with grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam – literally, “diamonds and corals” refers to languages, Sanskrit & regional language

Jagannatha Cult

• Devotee of Vishnu
• Puri, Odisha
• Make wooden image of deity
• Temple erected in 12^th century by Anantavarman, Ganga Dynasty ruler
• In 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to deity and proclaimed himself as the “deputy” of the god
• Temples gained importance

Rajputs

• 19^th century in Rajasthan (called Rajputana in British times)
• Linked to ideals and aspirations of rulers
• Prithviraj – ideal of hero – stories recorded in poems and songs
• Dramatic situations & strong emotions – loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc.
• Women were involved in valor
• Sati or immolation of widows on funeral pyre of their husbands

Kathak

• In North India
• Derived from katha (word used in Sanskrit)
• Katha were caste of story tellers in North India
• Evolved as dance in 15^th – 16^th century – Spread of Bhakti Movement
• Legends of Radha-Krishna enacted in folk plays - rasa lila (combined folk dance with basic gestures of kathak story-tellers)
• Performed in Mughal courts
• Developed in two gharanas (Jaipur & Lucknow)
• Under Wajid Ali Shah, last Nawab of Awadh it grew rapidly
• By 19^th century it spread to Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh
• Viewed as disfavor by British administrator
• Recognized as one of six “classical” forms of dance in the country after independence

Classical: Performed based on the rules, other classical forms include

• Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)
• Kathakali (Kerala)
• Odissi (Orissa)
• Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
• Manipuri (Manipur)

Miniature Paintings

• Small-sized paintings
• Done with water color on cloth or paper
• Earlier once on palm leaves and wood
• In Western India – illustrated Jaina teachings
• Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan – painters in there rule illustrated manuscripts with historical accounts – in brilliant colors depicted social life
• Painters moved from Mughal court to regional centers in Deccan & Rajput courts in Rajasthan
• Mythology and poetry were depicted at centers like Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh
• Common in HP – 17^th century – painting called Basohli - most popular text painted was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari – artists moved to hills by Nadir Shah Invasion & conquest of Delhi in 1739
• Kangra School of painting (HP) – 18^th Century – Miniature paintings with Vaishnavite traditions, soft colors including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes

Bengal

• Language: Bengali – derived form Sanskrit texts
• But early Sanskrit texts (mid-first millennium BCE) suggest that people of Bengal did not speak Sanskriti languages
• 4^th-3^rd BC – ties between Bengal & Magadha (South Bihar) Developed – brought Sanskrit
• 4^th Century – Guptas in North Bengal & links with Mid-Gangetic valley became strong
• 7^th Century: Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observed that languages related to Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal
• 8^th century: Under Palas
• 14^th-16^th Century: Ruled by Sultans (independent of rulers in Delhi)
• 1586: Akbar conquered Bengal suba (Persian was language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language)
• 15^th century: Bengali dialects got united by literary language in West Bengal. Modern Bengali includes non-Sanskrit words and words from tribal language, Persian etc.

Early Bengali literature divided into two categories:

• Indebted to Sanskrit includes translations of Sanskrit epics, Mangalakavyas (literally auspicious poems, dealing with local deities) and bhakti literature such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva (leader of Vaishnava bhakti movement) – has manuscripts
• Non-Sanskrit: Nath (yogic practices) literature such as songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra (son of Maynamati), stories concerning worship of Dharma Thakur (worshipped in stone or wood), and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads – circulated orally, common in eastern Bengal where Brahmans influence was weak

Pirs & Temples

• 16^th Century: People migrated from less fertile areas of West Bengal to more dense and forested areas of SE Bengal
• Cleared forests – started rice cultivation
• Local communities & shifting cultivators merged with new peasant community
• It coincided with establishment of Sultanate (Mughal) rule & capital at Dhaka – officials received land & established mosques
• Pirs: Had supernatural powers, people respected them, community leaders. Included saints or Sufis, daring colonizers and deified soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits.
• 15^th -19^th Century: Temple building in Bengal. Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in Bengal were built with support of “low” social groups like Kolu (oil pressers) and Kansari (bell metal workers)
• European Trading Communities – created new economic opportunities
• Temples began to copy double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thatched huts
• Four-roofed structure: four triangular roofs placed on the four walls move up to converge on a curved line or a point. Temples were usually built on a square platform – interior was plain & outer wall was decorated
• Temple excellence - Vishnupur in Bankura district of West Bengal
• Fish: Traditional food along with rice for Bengalis
• Terracotta plaques on walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) depict scenes of fish being dressed and taken to the market in baskets
• Bengal Brahmanas – were allowed to eat fish due to popularity in local diet – permitted under Brihaddharma Purana, 13^th century Sanskrit text from Bengal

Nation –State in Europe

• Till 18^th century – were subject to empire - Austro-Hungarian Empire
• After late 18^th century: Identify themselves as member of community with common language – French or German
• 19^th Century: Rumania school textbooks began to be written in Rumanian rather than Greek
• In Hungary, Hungarian was adopted as official language instead of Latin.
• Created consciousness among people that each linguistic community was a separate nation – later strengthened by movements for Italian and German unification in late 19^th century.

NCERT Class 7 History Chapter 10: 18th Century Political FormationsBy 1765: British grabbed territories in East India
New political groups emerged in first half of 18^th century (from 1707 that is death of Aurangzeb to 1761 that is 3^rd Battle of Panipat)

Decline of Mughal Rule

• Started during end of 17^th century
• Aurangzeb depleted military and financial resources of kingdom
• Later Mughals couldn’t check Mansabdar powers
• Nobles appointed as governors (subadars) controlled offices of revenue and military administration (diwani and faujdari)
• Periodic remission of revenue to the capital declined with governors consolidating control over provinces
• Peasant and zamindari rebellion added to the problem – revolt caused by mounting taxes
• Unable to arrest gradual shifting of political and economic authority into hands of provincial governors
• Nadir Shah plundered Delhi in 1739 and took away lot of wealth – Rs. 60 lakh, 1000 gold coins, Rs. 1 crore gold-ware, Rs. 50 crore jewels & Peacock Throne – New city of Shahjahana bad was turned into rubbles.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761
• Faced competition from other groups
• Were divided into Iranis and Turanis (Turkish people)
• Worst Mughal experiences - Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and Alamgir II (1754-1759) were assassinated, and two others Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) and Shah Alam II (1759-1816) were blinded by their nobles

Emergence of New States

By 18^th Century: Mughals fragmented into:

• States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad – powerful and independent - Saadat Khan – zat rank 6,000 (Awadh), Murshid Quli Khan – zat rank -7,000 (Bengal) and Asaf Jah – zat rank -7,000 (Hyderabad)
• States that enjoyed considerable independence under Mughals as watan jagirs - several Rajput principalities
• States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and Jats

Hyderabad

• Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, founder of Hyderabad - Powerful members at court of Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar – 1^st was governor of Awadh & later Deccan
• He had full control over administration
• Brought skilled soldiers from North India
• He appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs
• Mughals confirmed decisions taken by Nizams
• Engaged in struggle against Marathas to west and with independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of plateau
• They aims to control rich textile areas of Coromandel Coast in East

Awadh

• Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan was appointed subadar of Awadh in 1722 and founded a state – emerged as break-up of Mughal
• Controlled Ganga plains and trade route between North India and Bengal
• Held combined offices of subadari, diwani and faujdari that is political, financial and military affairs
• Reduced jagirdars (role to prevent cheating) appointed by Mughals
• He seized Rajput zamindaris and fertile lands of Afghans of Rohilkhand
• State depended on local mahajans for loans
• It sold right to collect taxes to bidders
• “Revenue farmers” (ijaradars) agreed to pay state a fixed sum of money

Bengal

• Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as naib, deputy to governor of the province – seized all power
• Commanded revenue administration – collected in cash with strictness, those unable to pay were asked to sell lands
• Transferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordered major reassessment of revenues of Bengal
• Under Alivardi Khan – Jagat Seth’s banking house became prosperous

Three Things Common under Awadh, Hyderabad & Bengal

• States established by nobles of Mughal Empire – Jagirdari system
• They contracted with revenue farmers for tax collection – ijaradari
• Relation with bankers and merchants who lent money to revenue farmers

Watan Jagirs of Rajputs

• Amber & Jodhpur kings – watan jagir (autonomy)
• 18^th century: Rulers extended control over nearby regions
• Ajit Singh, ruler of Jodhpur was involved in politics
• Influential Rajput families claimed subadari of rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa.
• Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur - held governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa & offices were renewed by Emperor Jahandar Shah in 1713
• Nagaur conquered by Jodhpur
• Amber seized Bundi
• Raja Jai Singh founded new capital at Jaipur and was given the subadari of Agra in 1722
• Maratha campaign started in Rajasthan since 1740s

Seizing Independence – Sikhs

• Guru Gobind Singh fought against Rajputs and Mughals before & after Khalsa in 1699
• After 1708, Khalsa rose in revolt against Banda Bahadur leadership – established administration b/w Satluj & Yamuna – removed coins in names of Nanak & Guru Gobind Singh - Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.
• Sikhs organized themselves under bands called jathas, and later on misls – combined army was dal khalsa
• Rakhi was introduced - offer protection to cultivators on payment of tax of 20% of the produce.
• Khalsa aimed to rule - Raj karega khalsa, introduced own coins in 1765 with same inscriptions as under Banda Bahadur
• Resisted Mughals & later Ahmed Shah Abdali who seized Punjab & Sarkar Sirhind from Mughals
• 18^th Century: Extended from Indus to Jamuna
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799

Seizing Independence – Marathas

• Shivaji with powerful warriors (deshmukhs)
• Highly mobile, peasant pastoralists (kunbis) – Backbone of Maratha
• After Shivaji - family of Chitpavan Brahmanas served Shivaji’s successors as Peshwa (or principal minister). Poona became capital of Maratha kingdom.
• Peshwa – Good military organization
• Malwa and Gujarat were seized from Mughals by 1720s
• By 1730s, Marathas were recognized as overlord of entire Deccan peninsula. He possessed the right to levy chauth and sardeshmukhi in the entire region
• Raided Delhi in 1737 & spread to Rajasthan & Punjab in the north; into Bengal and Orissa in east; and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu countries in the south
• Others became hostile towards Marathas and didn’t support Marathas during 3^rd Battle of Panipat in 1761
• Agriculture was encouraged and trade revived - Maratha chiefs (sardars) like Sindhia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda and Bhonsle of Nagpur raised powerful armies
• Malwa: Ujjain expanded under Sindhia’s patronage and Indore under Holkar’s – these functioned as commercial centers
• Silk from Chanderi was found in Poona, Maratha capital. Burhanpur had trade between Agra and Surat, expanded to Poona and Nagpur in south and Lucknow and Allahabad in east

Seizing Independence – Jats

• Consolidated power during 17^th-18^th century
• Churaman (leader) – controlled regions west of Delhi & b/w Delhi & Agra
• They became the virtual custodians of Agra city
• Panipat and Ballabhgarh – trading centers
• Suraj Mal – king of Bharatpur (strong ruler) – many people took refuge in Bharatpur on invasion of Nadir Shah
• Jawahir Shah had 30,000 troops of his own and hired 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops to fight Mughals
• Bharatpur fort: Traditional in nature
• Dig Fort: Elaborate garden palace combining styles seen at Amber and Agra (ideas from Shah Jahan)

French Revolution

• 18^th century: Common man did not participate in government affairs
• Middle classes, peasants and artisans fought against special rights enjoyed by clergy and nobility
• Believed no group should have privilege based on birth
• Social position must be based on merit
• Idea of equal law and opportunity for all
• Ideas of citizenship, nation-state and democratic rights took root in India from late 19^th century