NCERT Class 8 History

NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 1: How, when and Where

Knowing the Dates? “Birthday Θ ??”

• Temporal Phenomena
  
• How things were in past
  
• How things have changed
  
• Gap between “before” and “after’
  

Image of Gap between “Before” and “After’

Image of Gap Between “before” and “after’

• Robert Clive asked Rennel to produce maps of Hindustan
  
• It is hard to fix things on one fine day – it started gradually and stretched over a period of time
  
• Journey from “When” to “How and What”
  

Table of History Books - Past and History Books - Present

Table of History Books - Past And History Books - Present

History Books - Past	History Books - Present
When king was crowned?	How people earned livelihood?
When king was married?	What they produced?
When next ruler was put to throne?	How cities and Kingdom developed?
When king died?	How ideas spread and cultures changed?

Warren Hastings: 1^st Governor General of India in 1773

How to Classify?

• Either divide chronologically
  
• Or divide periodically
  

1817: James Mill (Scottish economist and political philosopher) gave three-volume work, “A History of British India” - divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British
Mill considered

• Asians lower than Europeans
  
• Hindu & Muslim period: Religious intolerance, caste taboos and superstitious practices
  
• British period: Civilized India with art, institutions and laws
  
• Explained to conquer all territories to spread enlightenment and happiness
  

Later Divisions

Adopted from West

• Ancient
  
• Medieval
  
• Modern – growth of science, reason, democracy, liberty and equality
  
• Colonial – no equality, freedom and economic growth, British subjugated local nawabs, controlled economy and collected revenue
  

Colonization - Subjugation of one country by another leads to political, economic, social and cultural changes

British: How Do We Know?

• Source is official record of British Administration
  
• Had culture of memos, notings and reports
  
• Established record rooms attached to all administrative institutions
  
• Archives and museums were established (Both National Museum and National Archives located close to Viceregal Palace in New Delhi)
  
• Early 19^th Century: Copied and beautifully written by Calligraphists
  
• Mid-19^th Century: printing started
  
• Surveying became common for efficient administration
  
• Detailed survey – revenue maps – soil, flora, fauna, local history and cropping pattern was explained
  
• 10 yearly census operations started
  
• Other surveys included botanical surveys, zoological surveys, archaeological surveys, anthropological surveys, forest surveys
  
• (IMPORTANT: These were official records and expressed what officials thought or wanted, they didn’t reveal what people looked for)
  

What People Thought About? (Atrocities of Britishers)

• Accounts of pilgrims and travelers
  
• Autobiographies of important personalities
  
• Popular booklets sold in the local bazaars
  
• Views in newspapers
  
• Public debates
  
• Ideas of leaders and reformers
  
  ---
  NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 2: From Trade to Territory
  
  • After Aurangzeb there was no powerful Mughal Ruler in India
    
  • In 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar was the emperor when revolt with British started
    
  • Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested by Captain Hodson
    
  • Britishers came as small trading companies and were interested in acquiring territories
    
  • Later they become masters of powerful territory (emerging from latter half of 18^th century)
    

  East India Company

• In 1600, acquired Charter from Queen Elizabeth I to trade with East, this meant that no other trading group in England could compete with the East India Company
  
• Buy goods at low price and sell them at high price
  
• Acquire new lands worldwide
  
• Mercantile trading companies made profit primarily by excluding competition, so that they could buy cheap and sell dear
  
• But it couldn’t prevent others from entering India.
  
• Portuguese established themselves much before in Goa. (Vasco De Gama explored India in 1498)
  
• Dutch were exploring possibilities in early 17^th Century and French also came
  

What Was in Demand?

All traders from different countries demanded same commodities

• Fine Cotton & Silk
  
• Pepper
  
• Cloves
  
• Cardamom
  
• Cinnamon
  

They reduced the profits and tried to remove rival competitors
Steps taken in 17-18^th century

• Sank each other’s ships
  
• Blockaded routes
  
• Prevented rival ships from moving with supplies of goods
  
• Trade was carried on with arms
  
• Trading posts were protected through fortification
  

This led to rise in conflicts

Trade in Bengal – East India Company

• 1^st English Factory – Near Hugli in 1651
  
• Company traders or factors operated
  
• Factory had warehouse where goods for export were stored & also had offices where Company officials sat
  
• Company asked merchants and traders to settle near factories
  
• 1696: Fort was built around settlement
  
• Bribed Mughals to give Company zamindari rights for 3 villages (one was Kalikata or Kolkata). Aurangzeb issued a farman (royal order) giving the right to trade duty free (but pay duty)
  
• Company refused to pay duty – led to loss in revenue
  

From Trade to Battle

• Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan was followed by Alivardi Khan and then Sirajuddaulah – all refused concessions, denied right to mint coins and expand forts
  
• Company said unjust demand of local officials was ruining the trade
  

Battle of Plassey

• Name from Persian “Palashi” or palash tree that flowers (used in Holi)
  
• After Alivardi Khan died in 1756, Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal
  
• Company wanted a puppet ruler and his rivals as nawab
  
• Sirajuddaulah asked company not to interfere in political dominion & pay revenue
  
• He marched 30,000 soldiers to factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships.
  
• Clive in Madras sent naval fleets to Bengal & led the battle
  
• Sirajuddaulah lost as troops under Mir Jafar never fought, as Mir Jafar was promised by Clive to become nawab
  
• Battle was the first major victory of Company in India
  
• After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar made the nawab
  
• Company wanted role in administration for expansion of trade
  
• Sometimes puppet nawabs were not giving all rights to maintain their dignity
  
• When Mir Jafar protested, Mir Qasim was made nawab
  
• Mir Qasim was defeated in Battle of Buxar (1764) & Mir Jafar was reinstalled
  
• Nawab had to pay Rs 500,000 every month
  
• After death of Mir Jafar in 1765, Clive ordered we must indeed become nawabs ourselves
  
• In 1765: Company as Diwan of Province of Bengal
  
• Diwani allowed company to use revenue resources of Bengal
  
• Now revenues from India could finance Company expenses – to purchase textile, maintain troops, and build forts and offices
  

Robert Clive

• He had come to Madras from England in 1743 at the age of 18.
  
• In 1767, when he left India his Indian fortune was worth $\pounds \mathrm{401,102}.$

• 
  
• He was appointed Governor of Bengal in 1764 to remove corruption in Company administration
  
• In 1772, he was cross-examined by the British Parliament which was suspicious of his vast wealth.
  
• In 1774, he was acquitted & committed suicide
  
• Those Britishers who amassed wealth in India and moved back to Britain to led good life were known as “nabobs” - anglicised version of the Indian word nawab.
  

Expansion of Company Rule

• No direct military attack
  
• Use of political, economic and diplomatic methods
  
• After Battle of Buxar, company appointed residents in Indian states – political agents to serve company’s interest
  
• Company forced the states into a “subsidiary alliance”. Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to be protected by the Company, but pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the Company was supposed to maintain. If payment was not made, territory was taken as penalty.
  
• When Richard Wellesley was Governor-General (1798-1805), the Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801, as he failed to pay for the “subsidiary forces”. Hyderabad was also forced to cede territories on similar grounds.
  

Tipu Sultan – Tiger of Mysore (Ruler in 1782)

• Direct military confrontation occurred in Mysore
  
• Mysore grew under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan
  
• Mysore controlled profitable trade of Malabar coast
  
• In 1785, Tipu Sultan stopped export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom
  
• Tipu Sultan established relation with French and modernized his army
  
• Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799).
  
• In last war, Battle of Seringapatam (combined attack of Marathas, Nizam of Hyderabad & Company), company ultimately win a victory. Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam
  
• Tipu was forced to sign a treaty with the British by which two of his sons were taken away as hostages
  
• Tipu’s toy tiger kept in Victoria and Albert Museum in London & was taken away in 1799
  

War with Marathas

• 1761: 3^rd Battle of Panipat – War between Marathas and Ahmed Shah Abdali
  
• Under different dynasties as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsle – chiefs were held together in confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister)
  
• In 18^th Century: Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis as main statesman
  
• 1^st Anglo- Martha War – Treaty of Salbai (1782)
  
• 2^nd Anglo-Maratha War - (1803-05) – British gained Odisha & north of Yamuna (Agra & Delhi)
  
• 3^rd – Anglo- Maratha War – (1817-19) – Marathas were crushed
  

Paramountcy

• From early 19^th Century – Company went on with aggressive territorial expansion
  
• Under Lord Hastings (1813-1823) – Paramountcy (authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian states) was introduced
  

Exceptions:

• Annexation of Kitoor (Karnataka) - Rani Channamma led an anti-British resistance movement, was arrested in 1824 and died in prison in 1829. However, Rayanna, a poor chowkidar of Sangoli in Kitoor, carried on the resistance, he was caught and hanged in 1830
  
• Controlled whole of south
  
• British got fear from Russia trying to annex Asia and slowly started moving NW
  
• War with Afghanistan (1833-42) & established indirect company rule
  
• In 1843, Sindh was annexed
  
• In 1849, Punjab was annexed after death of Ranjit Singh in 1839
  

Doctrine of Lapse

• Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General from 1848 to 1856
  
• If an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory
  
• Annexed Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854)
  
• Awadh in 1856 – stating they were obliged by duty to remove misgovernment & Nawab was deposed.
  
• War of 1857 broke out – Awadh joined
  

Maps of Expansion of British Territorial Power in India

Maps of Expansion of British Territorial Power In India

New Administration

• Under Warren Hastings $\left(1733to1785\right)$

• 
  
• British territories divided into Presidencies under Governors (Bengal, Madras and Bombay)
  
• Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced several administrative reforms mainly in justice
  
• Each district was to have two courts – a criminal court (faujdari adalat) under Qazi and a civil court (diwani adalat) under Mufti.
  
• Warren Hastings was impeached for 7 years when he went back to England in 1785. Edmund Burke accused him of being personally responsible for the misgovernment of Bengal.
  
• Brahman pandits gave different interpretation to Hindu Laws.
  
• In 1775, 11 pandits were asked to compile Hindu laws.
  
• N.B. Halhed translated this digest into English.
  
• By 1778 a code of Muslim laws was also compiled for the benefit of European judges.
  
• Regulating Act of 1773: New Supreme Court was established, while a court of appeal – the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at Calcutta
  
• Indian district had collector whose role was to collect revenue and maintain law and order and his office was called Collectorate
  

Company Army

• Cavalry (sawars: trained soldiers on horseback)
  
• Infantry or paidal (foot) soldiers: Trained in archery (teer-andazi) and the use of the sword.
  
• 18^th Century: Awadh and Benaras recruited peasants in army
  
• East India company recruited sepoy army
  
• After 1820, cavalry decreased as fighting with Burma, Afghanistan and Egypt who used Musket and matchlocks (guns)
  
• Steam technology came in early 19^th century
  
• Steamships reduced journey of 6 to 8 months to 3 weeks
  
• By 1857, Company directly ruled 63% territory and 78% population
  

Slave Trade in South Africa

• Dutch reached Africa in 17^th century
  
• People were captured and sold in slave markets
  
• Slavery ended in 1834
  
• In 1834, there were 36,774 privately owned slaves in Cape
  
   ---
  NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 3: Ruling the Countryside
  
  • 12 August 1765: Mughal emperor appointed East India Company as Diwan of Bengal – happened in Robert Clive’s tent
    
  • As Diwan – Company became financial administrator of the territory – it could buy what it needed and sell what it wanted
    
  • Company had to pacify the rulers of the past
    

  Revenue for Company

• Wanted large revenue assessment and collection system
  
• Increase revenue but buy cheap cotton and silk
  
• In 5 years, value of goods bought by Company in Bengal doubled
  
• Before 1865, Company purchased goods in India by importing gold and silver from Britain & now the revenue collected in Bengal could finance the purchase of goods for export
  
• So, Bengal economy went into crisis, artisans were deserting villages & peasants were not able to pay dues
  
• 1770: Famine in Bengal killed 10 million people & 1/3^rd population was wiped off
  

Improve Agriculture

• After 20 years, new concept came up
  
• Cornwallis introduced Permanent Settlement in 1793 - settlement, rajas and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars and asked to collect rent from peasants and pay revenue to the Company. Amount to be paid was fixed permanently – regular income for company and encourage Zamindar to invest in land
  
• Problems – revenue was too high to be paid & zamindars were not investing in land improvement
  
• Those who failed to pay tax, lost zamindari & land was sold in auction to Company
  
• In 1^st decade of 19^th Century – price of market rose & cultivation expanded but no gain for company
  
• Villagers found the system oppressive as they had to pay very high rent
  

New System

• Holt Mackenzie devised new system in 1822 – explaining fixed revenue system as incorrect
  
• Estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each village (mahal) had to pay – this was revised periodically and not fixed permanently
  
• In British revenue records mahal is a revenue estate which may be a village or a group of villages
  
• Mahalwari Settlement – charge of collecting revenue shifted to village headman rather zamindar – became popular in North India
  

Munro System

• Ryotwari System: In south India, tried by Captain Alexander Read in areas of Tipu Sultan & later developed by Thomas Munro
  
• Settlement made directly with cultivators (ryots) & British should act as parental father figure. There were no Zamindars in South India.
  

Crops for Europe

• Realized that countryside is not meant only for revenue but can grow crops that Europe needs
  
• In 18^th century – trying to grow opium & indigo
  
• Indigo: blue dye used in the Morris prints in 19^th century Britain - cultivated in India & India was biggest supplier of indigo in the world at that time.
  
• Persuaded to produce jute in Bengal, tea in Assam, sugarcane in United Provinces (now UP), wheat in Punjab, cotton in Maharashtra and Punjab, rice in Madras
  

Indigo

• Grows in tropics
  
• Used in cloth manufacturing in France, Italy and Britain by 13^th century – small amount reached with high price
  
• European depended on plant woad (temperate crop in northern Italy, southern France and Germany and Britain) for violet and blue dyes – pale and dull.
  
• Woad cultivators were afraid of competition by indigo and wanted to ban indigo
  
• Dyers preferred indigo due to bright blue color
  
• 17^th century – ban on indigo was relaxed
  
• French cultivated indigo in St Domingue in Caribbean islands, Portuguese in Brazil, English in Jamaica, and Spanish in Venezuela.
  
• Indigo plantations (large farm with forced labor) started in North America
  
• Demand increased and supplied from West Indies and America collapsed & b/w 1783 & 1789 production reduced to half and people were looking for new sources
  
• 1791, African slaves in plantation rebelled and slavery abolished in French colonies in 1792 – leading to collapse in plantation
  
• From last decade of 18^th century – indigo plantation started in Bengal (1788-30% indigo export from India increased to 95% in 1810)
  
• Company invested in indigo & officers left job to look after indigo plantation business with huge profits
  
• Company was giving loan to produce indigo
  

Indigo Cultivation

• 2 systems – nij and ryoti
  
• Nij Cultivation
  
• Cultivation on ryot’s land
  
• Planters produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled & employed hired labourer
  
• Indigo can be cultivated only on fertile areas but these were already densely populated – only small plots could be acquired
  
• They attempted to lease in land around the indigo factory, and evict the peasants from the area. But this always led to conflicts and tension
  
• Mobilizing labor was not easy
  
• Peasants were interested in rice cultivation
  
• 1 bigha required 2 ploughs – investment and maintenance was big issue
  
• Less than 25% land was under this system
  
• Ryoti Cultivation
  
• Cultivation on planter’s own land
  
• Planters forced the ryots to sign a contract agreement (satta)
  
• Sometimes village headman was forced to sign the contract
  
• Those who signed got cash advances at low rates of interest
  
• Loan committed them to cultivate indigo on 25% of the land
  
• Planter provided seed and the drill, while cultivators prepared soil, sowed seed and looked after the crop
  
• Price for indigo was low and cycle of loan never ended
  
• Indigo has deep roots and exhausted soil, so no rice could be grown
  

Manufacturing of Indigo

• Taken to Vat or fermenting vessel
  
• Vat beater had to remain in waist deep water for 8 hours
  
• 1^st vat: Leaves stripped off the indigo plant were first soaked in warm water in a vat for several hours. Liquid began to boil & rotten leaves were taken out. Liquid was drained into another vat that was placed just below the first vat.
  
• 2^nd Vat or beater vat: Solution was continuously stirred and beaten with paddles, it turned green and then blue. Lime water was added & indigo was separated out in flakes, a muddy sediment settled at the bottom & clear liquid rose to the surface
  
• 3^rd Vat or Settling vat: Liquid was drained off and the sediment, indigo pulp transferred to another vat & then pressed and dried for sale.
  

Blue Rebellion

• 1859: Ryots rebelled to grow indigo – didn’t pay rent to planters and attacked indigo factories
  
• Those who worked for planters were socially boycotted, and gomasthas (agents of planters) who came to collect rent were beaten up
  
• Indigo system was oppressive
  
• Ryots had support of local zamindars and village headman & fought with lathiyals (lathi-wielding strongmen maintained by the planters)
  
• Britishers were worried about another rebellion after 1857
  
• When in Barasat, magistrate Ashley Eden issued a notice stating that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo contracts, word went around that Queen Victoria had declared that indigo need not be sown. Eden action came as support to rebellion
  
• Government brought in military to protect the condition
  
• Commission held planters guilty and declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots – they were asked to continue the existing contract but can refuse for future
  
• After revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal and shifted to Bihar – business was affected by synthetic dyes
  
• Mahatma Gandhi’s visit in 1917 marked the beginning of the Champaran movement against the indigo planters
  
  
    NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 4: Tribals, Dikus and Vision of Golden Age
  
  1895: Birsa From Mundas in Chottanagpur – miraculous powers – could cure disease and multiply grains – to save people from trouble and free them from slavery of dikus (outsiders) – slowly became Bhagwan
  
  
  

  

  Image of Munda Tribe Geographical Location

  Image of Munda Tribe Geographical Location

  Later Santhals and Oraons became his follower
  

  Tribal Features

• Unique Customs and Rituals
  
• Those of same tribal groups thought of sharing common kinship ties
  
• Jhum Cultivation was practiced – cut treetops and burnt land, spread ash which contained potash (fertilizer), axe to cut and hoe to scratch soil, broadcast seeds (scattered in field), field to be left fallow – common in NE and Central India
  
• Exchanged goods for valuable forest produce
  
• Carry load and build roads
  
• Moneylenders gave loans by which tribals could meet the local needs – stuck with debt and poverty
  

Baigas: Central India could not live below the dignity of forest and not converted to laborers
Khonds: community living in Orissa forests – collective hunting and divide meat, ate fruits and roots, cooked food in oil from mahua and sal; used forest shurbs for medicine; local weavers asked them for supplies of kusum and palash flowers to color clothes and leather
Hajang: Tripura and migrated from Assam – women took children to workplace and factories
Pastoralists

• Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills were cattle herders
  
• Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders
  
• Gaddis of Kullu were shepherds
  
• Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats
  

Around 19^th Century: Tribals started settling down – Mundas of Chottanagpur – land belonged to clan as whole – members were descendants of original settlers
British officials considered settled tribal groups like Gonds and Santhals as more civilized than hunter – gatherers or shifting cultivators (wild and savage)

How Calendar Year Works for Tribals?

1^st Year Process

• Chait: clearing forest
  
• Baisakh: firing of forest
  
• Jeth: sowing of seeds
  
• Asadh to Bhadon: Men worked in the fields
  
• Kuar: 1^st fruits were ripened
  
• Aghan: Crop was ready
  
• Pus: Winnowing, dance and marriages
  
• Magh: shift to new bewars & hunting and gathering
  

2^nd Year: More time for hunting as only few crops were sown
3^rd Year: Diet supplemented with forest products

Map of Tribal Groups

Map of Tribal Groups

Effect of Colonial Rule

• Before British – tribal chiefs were important and had economic power and right to administer control, had own police and management
  
• Under British Rule – allowed to keep land and rent it but lost administrative control, were forced to follow laws and pay tribute to Britishers
  
• Britishers wanted people to settle down as it was easy to control and administer them – they wanted regular revenue sources and introduced land settlements
  
• It was hard to settle jhum cultivators in areas of scarce water and dry soil. Jhum cultivators in northeast continued with traditional practice
  

Impact of Forest Laws

British extended control on all forests and declared it as state property
Reserved Forest: Produced timber for Britishers only – people were not allowed to move, practice jhum or collect fruits
Since tribals not allowed – where to get the labour to cut logs for railway sleepers
Forest Department established forest villages to ensure a regular supply of cheap labour
Tribal groups reacted against British laws – disobeyed and continued with practice that was declared illegal with open rebellion

• Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam
  
• Forest satyagraha of the 1930s in Central Provinces
  

18^th Century: Silk was demanded in European market, fine quality silk was valued and exports from India increased & so East India Company encouraged silk production
Cocoon rearing in Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) by Santhals – growers were paid Rs. 3 to 4 for 1,000 cocoons and were exported to Burdwan or Gaya (here they were sold at 5 times the price) – middlemen made huge profits
Tribals recruited in tea plantations in Assam and coal mines in Jharkhand – miserable life and low wages

Tribal Rebellion

Against changes in law
New taxation system
Exploitation by traders and moneylenders

• Kols rebelled in 1831-32
  
• Santhals rose in revolt in 1855
  
• Bastar Rebellion in central India in 1910
  
• Warli Revolt in Maharashtra in 1940
  

Birsa Munda

• Born in 1870
  
• Grew in forest of Bohonda
  
• Faced extreme poverty
  
• Heard tales of Munda uprising & sirdar (leaders of community)
  
• They talked of tales of freedom from oppression of dikus – time to restore ancestral rights – were descendants of original settlers
  
• Went to local missionary school and heard that it was possible for Munda to attain Kingdom of Heaven & regain lost rights – if good Christians gave up bad practices
  
• He spent time with Vaishnav preachers
  

• Urged people to give up liquor, clean village and stop believing in witchcraft
  
• He turned against Christians and Hinduism
  
• He talked about golden age in past – satyug – good life, constructed embankments, tapped natural springs, planted trees and orchards, practiced cultivation to earn their living
  
• Britishers were afraid that Birsa would drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords, and government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head
  
• Britishers arrested Brisa in 1895 for rioting and jailed him for 2 years
  
• In 1897, Birsa urged people to destroy Ravana (dikus or Europeans) - attacked police stations and churches, and raided the property of moneylenders and zamindars. They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj
  
• 1900- Birsa died of Cholera
  
• He forced Britishers to introduce laws so that land of tribals could not be taken over easily
  
• He expressed that tribals can protest against injustice and revolt
  
  NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 5: 18th Century Political Formations East India Company affected every section of society and people resisted policies and actions that harmed their interests
  

  Nawabs Lost Power

• Mid-18^th Century: Nawabs lost power
  
• They lost authority
  
• Freedom of rulers was reduced
  
• Armed forces were disbanded
  
• Territories were taken off
  

Ruling families tried to negotiate but all in vain – Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the death of her husband.
Nana Saheb, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he be given his father’s pension when the latter died
1801: Subsidiary alliance imposed in Awadh & in 1856 it was taken over as Dalhousie said there was misgovernment
Names of Mughals were removed from coins
1849, Dalhousie announced that family of Bahadur Shah Zafar would move out of Red Fort and reside separately in Delhi
1856: Lord Canning declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as last Mughal ruler – his descendants would just be called as prince

Peasants and Sepoys

• Peasants resented high taxes and rigid revenue collection system, many failed to pay loans and lost their lands
  
• Sepoys were unhappy on pay, allowance and condition of service & new rules violated religious sensibilities
  
• People believed if they cross the sea, they will lose their religion or caste – in 1824, Sepoys were asked to go to Burma by sea route but they refused, they wanted to follow land route and were badly punished
  
• 1856: Company passed a new law - every new person who took up employment in Company’s army had to agree to serve overseas if required
  

Reforms Underway – by Britishers

• Stop sati and encourage remarriage of women
  
• Promote English education
  
• After 1830, Christian missionaries allowed to spread, own land and property
  
• In 1850, Indian converted to Christianity could inherit land
  

Subedar Sitaram Pande works “From Sepoy to Subedar” - cartridges used for these new rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs – affected religious sentiments

Mutiny to Rebellion

• Mutiny: Soldiers disobey the officers in the army
  
• Struggle between ruler and ruled
  
• People started believing they had a common enemy
  
• People organized, communicated and took initiative for the same
  
• Rebellion started in May 1857 after 100 years of East India Company
  
• Sepoys mutinied in Meerut and other areas
  
• Considered biggest armed resistance to colonialism in 19^th Century anywhere in the world
  

Developments

• 29 March 1857: Mangal Pandey hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrack pore
  
• 9 May 1857: Sepoys at Meerut refused to do army drill with new cartridges coated with cow and pig grease – 85 sepoys dismissed and sent to 10 year jail
  
• 10 May 1857: Soldiers marched to jails and released imprisoned sepoys and attacked Britishers, captured guns and declared war on firangis & sepoys reached Delhi and moved to Red Fort (Bahadur Shah Zafar was aging and not willing to accept what sepoys wanted). He however asked rulers to organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British (had huge implications)
  

Image of Bahadur Shah Zafar

Image of Bahadur Shah Zafar

• Alternate by Bahadur Shah Zafar led to enthusiasm amongst people
  
• Nodal points – Delhi, Kanpur & Lucknow – local leaders and zamindars joined
  
• Kanpur: Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao) gathered armed forces and expelled British garrison from the city & proclaimed himself Peshwa. He declared that he was governor under Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar
  
• Lucknow: Birjis Qadr (son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah) was proclaimed the new Nawab. His mother Begum Hazrat Mahal was actively part of it
  
• Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai fought along with Tantia Tope (general of Nana Saheb)
  
• Mandla (MP): Rani Avanthibai Lodhi raised army of 4,000 soldiers
  
• Britishers were defeated in many battles
  
• 6 Aug 1857: Lieutenant Colonel Tytler sent telegram to his Commander-in-Chief expressing the fear felt by British
  

Some Major Roles

• Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad – against Britishers and later moved to Lucknow
  
• Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly moved to Delhi – key military leaders
  
• Kunwar Singh from Bihar
  

Map of Important Centres of 1857 Revolt

Map of Important Centres of 1857 Revolt

Company Fights Back

• Passed new laws to convict rebels
  
• Delhi recaptured in September 1857 – Bahadur Shah Zafar was given life imprisonment and sent to Rangoon jail along with his wife Begum Zinat Mahal in Oct 1858. He died in Nov 1862 in jail.
  
• People still fought back for 2 years
  
• Lucknow taken in March 1858
  
• Rani Lakshmibai killed and defeated in June 1858
  
• Rani Avantibai initially won in Kheri but later preferred to die when surrounded by Britishers
  
• Tantia Tope fought guerilla warfare – captured and killed in April 1859
  
• British asked people to submit and if they did not kill any white they will have their rights reserved and rewards for loyal landholders for enjoying traditional rights
  

Consequences

• British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred powers of the East India Company to the British Crown – for responsible management
  
• Member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and was responsible for all matters related to the governance of India – his council was called Indian Council
  
• Governor General of India became the Viceroy (personal responsibility to Crown)
  
• Ruling chiefs were assured that there territories will never be annexed in future
  
• Kings were allowed to pass kingdom to adopted sons but acknowledge British Queen as paramount power
  
• Proportion of Indian soldiers in army will be reduced
  
• Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans will be recruited to army rather than soldiers from Awadh, Bihar and Central India
  
• Britishers started to respect the customary religious and social practices
  
• Policies were drafted to protect landlords and zamindars
  
• Land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion
  

China – Taiping Rebellion

• Uprising in Southern China (1850 to 1860s)
  
• 1000s of people led by Hong Xiuquan to fight for establishment of the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace
  

Map of China – Taiping Rebellion

Map of China – Taiping Rebellion

• He was converted to Christianity and was against Confucianism and Buddhism
  
• Wanted to establish a kingdom where a form of Christianity was practiced, where no one held any private property, where there was no difference between social classes and between men and women, where consumption of opium, tobacco, alcohol, and activities like gambling, prostitution, slavery, were prohibited
  
• Qing dynasty emperor along with British & French forces suppressed it.
  
  ---
  NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 6: Colonialism & City
  
  • Many new cities with industrialization emerged
    
  • Leeds & Manchester in Britain grew in 19^th & 20^th century with housing and job
    
  • Late 18^th century – Calcutta, Bombay & Madras – Presidency cities (administrative) which developed from East India Company’s factories at Surat, Madras and Calcutta
    
  • Many smaller cities declined, many towns manufacturing specialized goods declined, old trading ports couldn’t survive
    
  • Machlipatnam, Surat & Seringapatnam – deurbanized during 19^th century & by early 20^th century – 11% Indians were living in cities
    
  • Historic imperial city of Delhi became provincial town in the nineteenth century before it was rebuilt as the capital of British India after 1912
    
  • Delhi remained capital for more than 1,000 years
    
  • 14 capital cities were found in 60 square miles on left bank of Jamuna River
    
  Shah Jahan built Shahjahanabad in 1639 with fort palace complex
  

  

  Image of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi)

  Image of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi)

• Lal Qila & Red Fort made of red sandstone contained palace complex – to its west was Walled City with 14 gates – big bazaars of Chandni Chowk & Faiz Bazaar & a canal down the center of Chandni Chowk
  
• Jama Masjid (first mosque in India with minarets and full domes) was largest & grandest mosque & was highest in city
  
• Dargahs (tomb of Sufi saint), khanqahs (sufi lodge) and idgahs (open prayer hall)
  
• Open squares, winding lanes, quiet cul-desacs (street with dead end) and water channels were the pride of Delhi’s residents
  
• Sharp distinction b/w rich & poor
  

Delhi

• 1803 – British defeated Marathas but capital was Calcutta & Mughals were allowed to live in Red Fort, Delhi
  
• After 1911, Delhi became capital of British India
  
• Madras, Bombay & Calcutta – living spaces of Britishers and Indians separated as whites and blacks
  
• 1^st half of 19^th century – Britishers lived along Indians in walled city & enjoyed learning Urdu/Persian
  
• 1830 to 1857 was period of Renaissance
  
• After 1857 – rebels gathered and persuaded Bahadur Shah to become leader of uprising (Delhi remained under rebel control for 4 months)
  
• 1792 – Delhi College established for humanities and sciences in Urdu
  
• After 1857, Britishers plundered the city & exiled Bahadur Shah to Burma dismantling his court
  
• Britishers cleared area around forts like garden, pavilion, mosque for security reasons, mosques were destroyed
  
• Zinat-al-Masjid was converted into a bakery
  
• No worship was allowed in the Jama Masjid for five years
  
• 1/3^rd of the city was demolished, and its canals were filled up.
  
• 1870s – Western walls of Shahjahan abad were broken to establish railways & British started living in Civil Lines in north away from walled city
  
• Delhi College was converted to school and shut down in 1877
  

Planning a New Capital

• After 1857, many events were held
  
• 1877- Viceroy Lytton organized Durbar to acknowledge Queen Victoria as Empress of India (Grand Durbar in Delhi but capital was Calcutta) – celebrate British power with pomp and show
  
• 1911 – King George V was crowned in England & durbar in Delhi, capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi. New Delhi constructed as 10 square mile city on Raisina Hill by Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker – 2 mile avenue as Kingsway (Rajpath) leading to Viceroy’s Palace (Rashtrapati Bhavan) with secretariat buildings on both sides – looks from classical Greek (5^th century), central dome form Sanchi & red sandstone from Mughal architects
  

Image of Mughal Garden Rashtrapati Bhawan

Image of Mughal Garden Rashtrapati Bhawan

New Delhi: Broad, straight streets lined with sprawling mansions set in the middle of large compounds; sense of law & order; clean and healthy with proper water supply, drainage, green areas

Life During Partition

• Massive transfer of population, population increased and jobs changed
  
• After 1947, rioting started, Many Muslims left for Pakistan while Sikhs and Hindu Refugees moved from Pakistan
  
• 2/3^rd Muslims migrated and 40,000 homes were abandoned – mainly artisans, petty traders and labourers
  
• 5 lakh people added as migrants form Punjab – stayed in camps, schools with aim to build new homes – new colonies like Lajpat Nagar and Tilak Nagar was established - rural landlords, lawyers, teachers, traders and small shopkeepers
  
• Urdu urban culture was overshadowed by new tastes and sensibilities
  

Inside Old City

• Past – canal system for drinking and domestic supply
  
• 19^th century – baolis and wells & channels to remove waste; Shahjahani drains were closed and open surface drains were introduced (too overburdened & it overflowed) – municipal committee was not willing to spend on good drainage
  
• Mughal period – havelis and open courtyard & fountains – declined in 17^th & 18^th century – amir (nobleman) unable to maintain it & havelis got subdivided & were taken over by mercantile class
  
• Colonial bungalows – large single storeyed structure with pitched roof for nuclear family in 1-2 acre area – separate living, dining & bedroom with veranda – kitchen, stable and servant quarter in separate space
  

Municipality Plan

• 1931 census – old city crowded with 90 persons/acre while New Delhi had 3 person/acre
  
• 1888- Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme by Robert Clarke for Walled City residents – keep them away from old city to new type of market square where shops would be built
  
• Streets in grid pattern with identical width, size and character
  
• Land divided into equal areas to construct neighborhoods
  
• Clarkegunj as development was called remained incomplete & couldn’t decongest old city
  
• 1936 – Delhi Improvement Trust was established – Daryaganj South was built for wealthy Indians – with houses grouped around parks & within houses were new rules of privacy - different members of the same family had their own private spaces within the home.
  
• Hebert Baker, architect went to South Africa & got connected with Cecil Rhodes (Governor of Cape Town)
  
• He designed city of Pretoria in South Africa – used same in Secretariat building in New Delhi
  
• Union Building & Secretariat were both built to house imperial offices
   
• NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 7: Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners 

• 
  
  • Surat was major trading port – Dutch & English in early 17^th century but declined in 18^th century
    
  • 2 crafts and industries crucial during industrial revolution – textiles (mechanized production made it foremost industrial nation in 19^th Century) and iron & steel (Growing from 1850s – Britain was called as “Workshop of World”)
    
  • Late 18^th century – Company was buying goods in India and exporting to Europe to make profit (later manufactured goods flooded in India)
    

  Indian Textiles

• Around 1750 – Before British conquered Bengal – India was world’s largest producer of cotton textiles – known for quality and craftsmanship – traded in SE Asia, West & Central Asia
  
• Patola – woven in Surat, Ahmedabad & Patan – highly valued in Indonesia
  

Image of Patola Saree

Image of Patola Saree

• Muslin – fine cotton cloth from India by Arab traders in Mosul, Iraq
  
• Calico – cotton textile from Calicut, Kerala by Portuguese
  
• 1730 – Order for 5,89,000 cloth pieces with 98 cotton and silk varieties (woven cloth pieces were 20 yards long & 1 yard wide) – 2 year advance orders were placed
  
• Printed Clothes named as:
  
• Chintz (colorful, flowery design in Masulipatnam – exported to Iran)
  

Image of Chintz

Image of Chintz

• Cossaes (or khassa)
  
• Bandanna (brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head – previously for tie and dye – Rajasthan & Gujarat)
  

Image of Bandanna

Image of Bandanna

Jamdani (decorative motifs woven on loom in grey and white – Dacca & Lucknow)

Image of Jamdani

Image of Jamdani

• Other cloths noted for place of origin - Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Odisha, and Charpoore
  
• Early 18^th century – Europeans were worried about popularity of Indian textiles and protested import
  
• 1720 – Ban on Chintz in England & known as Calico Act
  
• England started production – 1^st to grow under government protection was calico printing industry (Indian designs were imitated on white muslin or unbleached Indian Cloth)
  
• 1764- Spinning jenny (wheel turned and rotated all spindles – single worker can operate many spindles) invented by John Kaye – increases productivity of traditional spindles
  
• 1786 – invention of steam engine revolutionized weaving
  
• Indian textiles dominated trade till 18^th century – Dutch, French & English made profits & purchased cotton and silk by importing silver (after British gained political power in Bengal, no more imports occurred & revenue was collected form peasants and zamindars)
  

Weavers

• Tanti weavers of Bengal
  
• Julahas or momin weavers of north India
  
• Sale and kaikollar and devangs of south India
  
• Skills passed from one generation to another
  
• Spinning done by women (spun on charkha & rolled on takli – woven into cloth by weaver)
  
• Dyeing of thread by dyer called rangrez
  
• Printed – block printing by chhipigars
  

Decline of Indian Textiles

• Competition from British textile in European markets
  
• Export was difficult due to higher duties
  
• By early 19^th century- English goods ousted Indian & Indian weavers lost employment (Bengal was worst hit)
  
• By 1830 – British cotton cloth flooded Indian Market
  
• By 1880 – 2/3^rd of all cloths worn by Indian were produced in Britain (affected weavers and spinners)
  
• Aurangs (warehouse) were abolished
  
• However it didn’t die completely – as borders and traditional woven patterns couldn’t be produced by machines (was in demand by middle class and rich)
  
• Also coarse cloth used by poor was not produced in machines
  
• Late 19^th century – Sholapur (West India) & Madura (South India) – as major textile centers – Mahatma Gandhi boycotted foreign goods and charkha was center of tricolor flag adapted by INC in 1931
  
• Weavers who lost job became agricultural laborers – some migrated to cities and others to plantations in Africa & S. America
  
• New cotton mills - Established in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur
  
• 1854 – 1^st cotton mill in Mumbai – export of raw cotton, black soil, later mills were established
  
• By 1900 – 84 mills in Mumbai – mainly by Parsis & Gujarat is
  
• 1861 – Mill in Ahmedabad
  
• 1862 – Mill in Kanpur
  
• Spurt came in WW-I when textile imports from Britain declined & Indian factories were asked to produce for military
  

Sword of Tipu Sultan

• Now in England Museum
  
• Made of high carbon steel – Wootz steel (South India) – sharp edge with flowing water pattern (from small carbon crystals embedded in iron)
  

Image of Sword of Tipu Sultan

Image of Sword of Tipu Sultan

• Wootz steel made in smelting furnaces (iron mixed with charcoal is kept in small clay pots under temperature control) – derived from Francis Buchanan
  
• Anglicised version of ukku (Kannada), hukku (Telugu) and urukku (Malayalam)
  
• Michael Faraday who discovered electricity and electromagnetism – studied for 4 years the properties of Wootz steel
  
• Required specialized technique of refining iron
  
• Smelting by men
  
• Bellow (equipment that pumps in air) to keep charcoal burning by women
  
• Slowly these furnace abandoned as colonial govt. prevented people from entering reserved forests (source of charcoal)
  
• Some areas they had to pay high tax to enter forest & so income was reduced
  
• By late 19^th century – Iron & steel was imported from Britain – lowered demand from local craftsman
  

Iron & Steel Plants in India

• 1904 – Charles Weld (American geologist) & Dorabji Tata (Eldest son of Jamestji Tata) travelled to Chhattisgarh for iron ore deposits – they met Agarias (carrying basket loads of iron ore) – finally found Rajhara hills (finest ores in the world)
  
• But this region was dry and water was required for running factory
  
• Large area cleared near River Subarnarekha to establish Jamshedpur – TISCO started here in 1912 (steel imported from Britain, railways expanded)
  

Image of Iron and Steel Plants in India

Image of Iron and Steel Plants In India

• 1914 – WW-I broke out and Britain supplied steel for war & imports declined. TISCO produced shells and carriage wheels for war
  
• By 1919 – 90% steel was brought by colonial government and it became biggest steel industry within British Empire
  
• Later, demand for government protection increased
  

Industrialization in JAPAN

• Japan supported growth of industries in contrast to India which was expanding market for colonial goods
  
• 1868 – Meiji regime – Japan must industrialize to resist Western domination; postal service, telegraph, railway and steam shipping were developed
  
• Large industries were first started by government and then sold off at cheap rates to business families
  
• India – Colonial domination created barriers to industrialization
  
• Japan’s industrial development was linked to military needs
  
  NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 8: Civilizing the Native, Educating the Nation
  
  British wanted territorial conquest, control over revenue & civilize the native & change their customs and values
  Education through Eyes of Britishers – Orientalist Culture (Knowledge of Asia)
  

  Image of Education through Eyes of Britishers – Orientalist Culture

  Image of Education through Eyes of Britishers – Orientalist Culture

• 1783 – William Jones in Kolkata – junior judge @ Supreme Court & a linguist – knew Greek, Latin, French, English, Persian
  
• In Calcutta – he started learning Sanskrit – his interested were shared with others
  
• Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed – were discovering ancient heritage, masking languages, translating Sanskrit and Persian
  
• Jones + Colebrooke + Halhed –started journal called Asiatick Researches
  
• Shared respect for culture of India and West
  
• Explained that India attained glory in past but it has declined
  
• Aimed to understand meaning and translate ancient texts – rediscover heritage & glory of past
  
• Britishers became guardians of Indian culture & masters as well
  
• Britishers should encourage Sanskrit & Persian and only then can they win the heart of natives – but idea was opposed by many
  
• Madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law
  
• Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts
  
• Monument to Warren Hastings, by Richard Westmacott, 1830, now in Victoria Memorial in Calcutta
  

Critics to Orientalists

• James Mill – Was biggest critic
  
• East was full of errors, unscientific, non-serious and light-hearted
  
• Mill – Aim of education to teach what is useful & practical – make Indians familiar with scientific advances rather than sacred literatures
  
• Thomas Babington Macaulay - India as an uncivilised country that needed to be civilized – “single shelf of a good European library was worth whole native literature of India and Arabia” – emphasized need to teach English
  
• English Education Act of 1835 was introduced – English became medium of instruction for higher education & this stopped Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras Sanskrit College (these were considered as “temples of darkness that were falling of themselves into decay”)
  

Education for Commerce

1854 - Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor-General in India. Issued by Charles Wood – known as Wood’s Despatch

• Emphasized benefits of European learning
  
• Benefits were mainly economic – expand trade and commerce
  
• Improve moral character – trustworthiness and honesty – supply with civil servants who could be trusted
  
• Education departments established to control education
  
• Steps taken for system of university education – universities in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta (during 1857 revolt)
  

Christian missionaries criticized practical education and focused on moral character of people
Till 1813, Britishers opposed Christian missionaries fearing that it would invoke suspicion in people
Serampore Mission by William Carey under Danish East India Company – Printing press established in 1800 and College in 1818

Story of Local Schools

1830 – William Adam (Scottish missionary) toured Bengal & Bihar on progress of education in vernacular schools
1 lakh pathshalas each with 20 students – around 20 lakh students in Bengal and Bihar – established by wealthy or local community

• Flexible education
  
• no fixed fee, no printed books, no separate school building, no benches or chairs, no blackboards, no system of separate classes, no roll call registers, no annual examinations, and no regular time-table
  
• Under banyan tree or at guru’s home
  
• Rich paid more than poor for fee
  
• Teaching was oral
  
• No classes during harvesting season – so even peasants child can study
  

Formalization of Education

• New rules
  
• Less flexible
  
• After 1854 – Company decided to improve vernacular education
  
• Introduce order within system
  
• Formalize routine
  
• Establish rules
  
• Ensure inspections
  
• Government pandits to look after 4-5 pathshalas
  
• Regular timetable
  
• Textbook systems
  
• Annual examination
  
• Pay regular fee
  
• Have fixed seats in classroom
  
• No holidays for harvesting season – those who cannot join – was unwillingness to learn (lack of desire)
  

Those pathshalas which accepted new rules were given grants

Agenda for National Education

• Need for Western education to modernize them
  
• Open more schools, colleges and universities
  
• Spend more money on education
  

Mahatma Gandhi’S Views

• “English education has enslaved us”
  
• Created sense of inferiority
  
• We are charmed by West and admire everything from West
  
• Education should be for sense of dignity and self-respect
  
• Indian languages should be medium of instruction
  
• We have become strangers in our own lands
  
• Western education focused on reading and writing rather than oral knowledge; it valued textbooks rather than lived experience and practical knowledge
  
• Education to develop mind & Soul
  
• All round drawing - People had to work with their hands, learn a craft, and know how different things operated
  
• Literacy in itself is not education
  

Tagore’S Views

• Adobe of peace
  
• Shantiniketan in 1901 – within natural environment – 100 km away from Calcutta
  
• As child he hated school – suffocating and oppressive & as prison
  
• Child should be happy, creative and explore thoughts
  
• Self-learning outside of restricted and rigid discipline of schooling
  
• Teachers should be imaginative
  
• Creative learning
  

Differences in Ideologies

• Gandhiji was against Western technology
  
• Tagore wanted to combine western with traditional ways – teach science and technology along with art, music and dance
  

Some wanted changes within British system
Others wanted to redefine British system
Education Act 1870 – no widespread education, child labour was common, poor children could not be sent to school

• Number of schools limited to those run by the Church or set up by wealthy individuals
  
• Most important educational thinkers of the period was Thomas Arnold - became the headmaster of the private school Rugby – favored secondary school curriculum - study of the classics disciplined the mind -To become civilized adults, they needed to understand society’s notions of right and wrong, proper and improper behavior
  

NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 9: Women, Caste and Reform

• Social reformer ("Crusader" and "meliorist") is anyone who advocates for reform of a certain area of society.
  
• Reform movement: Social movement that aims to make gradual change
  
• Revolutionary Movement: Aims to bring rapid or fundamental changes
  

Story 200 Years Back – State of Women & Caste

• Early age of marriage
  
• Polygyny (more than one wife) was prevalent in Hindus & Muslims
  
• Sati was practiced (widows burnt with husband’s funeral) – as barbarism of the East
  
• No access to education – if educated she would become widow
  
• Caste divisions – upper caste vs. lower caste (who kept city clean were considered polluting or untouchables)
  
• Untouchables – not allowed to enter temple, draw water from common wells, bath in common ponds and were considered inferior
  

Image of Socio - Religious Reform Movements

Image of Socio - Religious Reform Movements

Working for a Change for Women

• Changes from early 19^th century - books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets were printed – much cheaper than manuscripts
  
• Social, religious, economic and political issues could be debated
  
• Hook swinging festival - Devotees underwent a peculiar form of suffering as part of ritual worship. With hooks pierced through their skin they swung themselves on a wheel
  

Raja Rammohan Roy

Image of the Man Abolished Sati Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Image of the man abolished sati Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Image of Raja Rammohan Roy

Image of Raja Rammohan Roy

• Founded Brahmo Samaj in Calcutta
  
• Changes were necessary to remove unjust practices & adopt new way of life
  
• Freedom and women equality
  
• Campaign against practice of sati & in 1829 sati was banned
  
• Well versed in Sanskrit & Persian
  

Ishwar chandra Vidhyasagar

Image of Ishwarchandra Vidhyasagar

Image of Ishwarchandra Vidhyasagar

• Worked on widow remarriage – act passed in 1856 – spread to various parts of India
  
• Set up schools for girl education
  

Veerasalingam Pantulu

Image of Veeresalingam Pantulu

Image of Veeresalingam Pantulu

In Telugu speaking Madras presidency – widow remarriage

Dayanand Saraswati

• Founded Arya Samaj
  
• Supported widow remarriage – those married were not easily accepted in society
  
• Attempted to reform Hinduism
  
• Opened girl schools in Punjab
  

Image of Dayanand Saraswati

Image of Dayanand Saraswati

Jyotirao Phule

Image of Jyotirao Phule

Image of jyotirao phule

• Opened girl schools in Maharashtra
  
• Born in 1827 – studied in Christian Missionary school
  
• Argued Aryans were foreigners and defeated true children of India
  
• Upper caste has no right to land and power which belongs to indigenous people or low caste
  
• Shudras (labouring castes) & Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination
  
• Formed Satyashodhak Samaj for caste equality
  
• Critical of anti-colonial nationalism preached by upper caste leaders
  
• Wrote book – “Gulamgiri” in 1873 and dedicated it to Americans who fought to free slaves (linking low caste in India to blacks in America)
  
• Movement against caste was continued by Dr B.R. Ambedkar in western India and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in the south
  

Role of Women in Women Upliftment

• Muslim women read Koran in Arabic – Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted verses from Koran to argue for women education
  
• Urdu novel writings started in late 19^th century
  
• Begum of Bhopal promoted education and founded schools in Aligarh for girls
  
• Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta – critic of conservative ideas
  
• Tarabai Shinde - educated at home at Poona, published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), criticizing the social differences between men and women.
  
• Pandita Ramabai – Sanskrit scholar against Hinduism – wrote a book about miserable lives of upper caste Hindu Women – founded women’s home at Poona to shelter women being badly treated by husband’s relatives
  
• Push for laws for women right to vote – female suffrage, better health care – equality and freedom (in hand by JL Nehru & SC Bose)
  
• 1929 – Child Marriage Act – minimum age for marriage for man (18 years) and women (16 years) later increased to 21 and 18 years respectively
  

Caste Reforms

• Raja Rammohan Roy – translated Buddhist text critical of caste
  
• Prarthna Samaj – adhered to bhakti movement – equality of all caste
  
• 1840 – Paramhans Mandali founded in Bombay for caste abolition – reformers were people of upper caste – violate taboos on food and touch
  
• Christian missionaries began setting up schools for tribal groups and “lower”-caste children
  
• Poor moving for jobs from villages to cities (new demand for labour – sewage cleaner, sweeper, rickshaw puller etc.), some went to work in plantations in Assam, Mauritius (Coolie Ship named John Allen carried workers there), Trinidad and Indonesia
  
• Madigas (AP) – tribe (untouchables) to clean hides, tan and sew sandals – in WW-I, demand for leather increased & made high profits
  
• Mahar (untouchables) – got job in Mahar regiment in army
  
• Dublas (Gujarat) – labored fields of upper caste
  
• 1829 – Bombay Presidency – untouchables were not allowed – sit outside classroom and listen
  

Demand for Equality and Justice

Non-Brahmins organized against caste discrimination, social equality and justice

Ghasidas

Image of Ghasidas

Image of Ghasidas

• Worked among leatherworkers
  
• Satnami movement in Central India
  
• Improve social status
  

Haridas Thakur

Image of Haridas Thakur

Image of Haridas Thakur

• His Matua sect worked among Chandala cultivators
  
• He questioned Brahmanical texts that supported the caste system.
  

Narayan Guru

• Guru from Ezhava caste in Kerala
  
• Ideas for unity for people
  
• Against treating people unequally for caste system
  
• oru jati, oru matam, oru daivam manushyanu (one caste, one religion, one god for humankind)
  
• Create a sense of self-esteem among the subordinate castes
  

Image of Narayan Guru

Image of Narayan Guru

B. R. Ambedkar

Image of B. R. Ambedkar

Image of B. R. Ambedkar

• Leader of Dalit movement
  
• Taught at army school
  
• Born in Mahar family
  
• Experienced caste prejudice – sit outside class, not drink water from taps
  
• Went to fellowship in USA for higher studies
  
• In 1919 – returned back and wrote on upper caste power
  
• 1927 – temple entry movement (Dalits also used water from tanks), led 3 movements b/w 1927 to 1935 & make everyone see power of caste prejudice
  

Non-Brahman Movement

Brahmans were heirs of Aryan invaders from north who had conquered southern lands from the original inhabitants of the region – the indigenous Dravidian races

E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker or Periyar

Image of E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker

Image of E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker

• From middle class family
  
• Studied Sanskrit
  
• Became member of Congress (against the fact that low caste was asked to sit away from upper caste)
  
• Untouchables have right for dignity as they are true upholders of Tamil and Dravidian Culture
  
• Started Self Respect Movement
  
• Critic of Codes of Manu, Bhagavad Gita & Ramayana
  
• Orthodox Hindu society reacted by founding Sanatan Dharma Sabhas and Bharat Dharma Mahamandal in north & Brahman Sabha in Bengal
  

Black Slaves and White Planters

• From 17^th century – Blacks were captured from Africa to America to work in plantations
  
• American Revolution of 1776
  
• Abraham Lincoln - those who had fought slavery had done so for the cause of democracy
  

Major Reforms

Brahmo Samaj

• Keshab Chandra Sen – main leader
  
• Founded in 1830
  
• Prohibited idolatry and sacrifice
  
• Believed in Upanishads
  
• Critically drew ideals from Hinduism & Christianity
  

Young Bengal Movement

• Henry Louis Vivian Derozio – teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta
  
• Radical ideas
  
• Attacked customs
  
• Demand for women education
  

Ramakrishna Mission

• Named after Ramakrishna Paramhansa (Swami Vivekananda’s guru)
  
• Social service
  
• Selfless action
  

Prarthana Samaj

• Established in 1867 in Bombay
  
• Remove caste restrictions
  
• Abolish child marriage
  
• Encourage women education and widow remarriage
  

Veda Samaj

• In 1864 in Madras
  
• Inspired by Brahmo Samaj
  
• Abolish caste system
  
• Promote widow remarriage and women education
  
• Believed in one God
  
• Condemned superstitions & orthodox Hinduism
  

Aligarh Movement

• Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College - founded by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875 at Aligarh – later as AMU
  
• Modern education with Western science
  

Singh Sabha Movement

• Reform organization of Sikhs
  
• 1^st in Amritsar in 1873 & Lahore in 1879
  
• To rid Sikhism of superstitions, caste distinctions and practices seen by them as non-Sikh
  
• In 1892 – Khalsa College in Amritsar was established
  
• Combine modern teachings with Sikh teachings
  

Other Important Reformers

• Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
  
• Shahu Maharaj
  
• T. K. Madhavan
  
• Tukojirao Holkar II
  
• Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
  
• Dhondo Keshav Karve
  
• Vitthal Ramji Shinde
  
• Justice Ranade
  
• Virchand Gandhi
  
• Vinoba Bhave
  
• Baba Amte
  
• Acharya Balshastri Jambhekar
  
• Gopal Hari Deshmukh
  
• Pandurang Shastri Athavale
  
• Basavanna
  
• Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
  
  NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 10: Changing World of Visual Arts
  
  
  • New art forms were brought – paintings and print making
    
  • New styles and conventions (accepted norms) of paintings
    
  • Oil painting were introduced by Europeans – gave real feel
    
  • Key issues in paintings – culture, power & people
    

  Picturesque Painting Style

• India as quaint land explored by Britishers
  
• Thomas Daniell & William Daniell (nephew of Thomas) – came to India in 1785 and toured for 7 years from Calcutta to South – drew Britain’s newly conquered territories & ruins of ancient civilization or past glory – oil paintings exhibited in Britain & drew engravings (by wood or metal)
  
• What was the theme? New cities (Calcutta), with wide avenues, majestic European-style buildings, and new modes of transport
  
• Traditional life of India as pre-modern, changeless and motionless, typified by faqirs, cows, and boats sailing on the river – emphasized dramatic change under Britishers
  

• Portrait (person with facial expression)
  
• Portraiture – Art of making portraits
  
• Rich & powerful wanted to see themselves on canvas
  
• Indian portraits – miniature
  
• English portraits – life-size and real (size projected the importance of patrons)
  
• European painters came to India for profitable commissions (do work against payment for profit)
  
• Paintings for Indian nawabs as well – some against it while others accepted it
  
• Muhammad Ali Khan (nawab) had war with British in 1770s & became a dependent pensioner of the East India Company - commissioned two visiting European artists, Tilly Kettle and George Willison, to paint his portraits – later gifted it to King of England and the Directors of the East India Company. Despite losing political power, his portraits were in a royal figure
  

Johann Zoffany

• Portrait painter
  
• Born in Germany, migrated to England
  
• Came to India in mid-1780s for five years
  
• Indians as submissive and inferior & with shadowy background
  
• Britishers as superior and imperious, arrogant with luxury life
  

Painting History

• Dramatise and recreate episodes of British imperial history
  
• Explain their prestige and popularity
  
• First hand sketches and accounts of travelers
  
• Explain power, victory and supremacy
  
• By Francis Hayman in 1762 and placed on public display in the Vauxhall Gardens in London (Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after Battle of Plassey – won by conspiracy) – painting depicts only welcome by Mir Jafar to Lord Clive
  
• Rober Kerr Porter – painted storming at Seringapatnam & defeat of Tipu Sultan in 1799
  
• David Wilkie – painted Sir David Baird standing triumphantly & Tipu Sultan dead on floor (fate of those who oppose Britishers)
  

Court Artists

• Tipu Sultan opposed British in battlefield and culturally - His palace walls had mural paintings by local artists – explained battle of Polilur in 1780 when Tipu Sultan and Haider Ali defeated British troops
  
• In Murshidabad, British installed puppet nawabs as Mir Jafar and then Mir Qasim – local miniatures to absorb styles of British – local artists created perspective (far objects as smaller and near objects as bigger) and use of light and shade to create real life like figure – Britishers could not support and pay them
  
• Company paintings – collection of local painters producing a vast number of images of local plants and animals, historical buildings and monuments, festivals and processions, trades and crafts, castes and communities
  
• Besides court artists others painted people on empty spaces – plants, birds, animals
  

New Popular Indian Art

• In Bengal temples of Kalighat, Scroll Painting (pataus) – painting on long roll of paper
  
• Called kumors in eastern India and kumhars in north India
  
• People moved to Calcutta in early 19^th century – city was expanding as commercial and administrative center – with offices, buildings, roads, markets
  
• Previously these producing gods and goddesses images – traditionally with flat pictures and now in rounded 3-D form (bold, large and powerful style) – in society where changes were very drastic – late 19^th century depicted social life under British rule – ridiculed those who spoke English, adopted western habits, sat on chairs and westernized baboos (as clowns) & anger of common man against the British rule
  
• These were engraved in wooden blocks & later mechanical printing press were established to print in large numbers & could be sold in cheap
  
• Middle class artists set up printing press – new method of life study, oil painting, print making – major was Calcutta Art Studio (lifelike images of prominent Bengali personalities)
  
• Early 20^th century – popular prints carried nationalist messages – Bharat Mata (goddess with national flag – slaughtering the British)
  

Photographers

• Recorded cultural diversity
  
• Victory of Britishers
  
• Showed India as primitive land
  
• Samuel Bourne came to India in the early 1860s & set up one of the most famous photographic studios in Calcutta, known as Bourne and Shephard.
  
• Pointed arches with Gothic buildings in mid 19^th century – borrowed from classical style of Greece and Rome
  

Search for National Art

Connection b/w art and nationalism
Raja Ravi Varma

• Modern and national style
  
• Belonged to family of maharajas of Travancore in Kerala (addressed as Raja)
  
• Mastered oil painting and life study
  
• Dramatized scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana (on theoretical performance of mythological stories)
  
• He established picture production team and printing press on the outskirts of Bombay
  
• Color printings of religious paintings were mass produced
  

Abanindranath Tagore

• Nephew of Rabindranath Tagore
  
• Different vision for national art
  
• Rejected Ravi Varma as westernized & his style as unsuitable
  
• Inspirations from Non-Western art traditions and capture essence of east
  
• Turned to miniature and mural paintings in Ajanata caves
  
• Influenced by Japanese artists
  
• Witnessed new Indian style of paintings
  
• Painted Banished Yaksha of Kalidas’s poem Meghaduta
  

Nandalal Bose

• Painted Jatugriha Daha (The Burning of the House of Lac during Pandava’s exile in the forest)
  
• Student of Abanindranath Tagore
  
• Used 3-D effects not found in Abanindranath Tagore paintings
  
• Lyrical flow of lines, elongated limbs and postures of figures
  
• New Art Form - Inspiration from living folk art and tribal designs
  

Okakura Kakuzo

• In 1904 published book - The Ideals of the East
  
• Opening lines of Book – Asia is One
  
• Asia is humiliated by west and Asians must collectively resist Western domination
  
• Save traditional techniques of Japanese art
  
• Principal founder of 1^st Japanese Art Academy
  
• Visited Shantiniketan and was influenced by Rabindranath and Abanindranath Tagore
   

NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 11: Making of National Movement 1870s-1947

Nationalism Emerges

• Britishers were exercising control on lives of Indian and India’s resources – so need was to end this control
  
• Political associations after 1850 depicted this clearly – especially those in 1870s and 1880s
  
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (of or for all people) – goal of all people of India irrespective of region, community or class –with idea of Sovereign (act without interference)
  
• Reasons for intensification of dissatisfaction from British rule
  
• Arms Act, 1878 – Indians couldn’t possess arms
  
• Vernacular Press Act – silence those who were critical of government, confiscate newspaper asset if the content was objectionable
  
• Ilbert Bill, 1883 – trial of British persons by Indian and equality b/w Indian and British judges (but was withdrawn as whites opposed) – racial attitude of Britishers
  

Indian National Congress

• Established in 1885 with 72 delegates
  
• Dadabhai Naoroji (businessman and publicist settled in London), Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer
  
• Mainly in Bombay and Calcutta
  
• A.O.Hume – brought Indians from various regions
  
• Naoroji wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in India – criticism of economic impact of British rule
  

Nation in Making

• 1^st 20 years was moderate – wanted Indian voice in government
  
• Legislative council to be more representative, more powers
  
• Indians to be placed in high position in government – civil service exams in India and London
  
• Indianisation of administration – as major jobs monopolized by whites – with aim to reduce drain of wealth
  
• Separation of judiciary from executive
  
• Repeal of Arms Act
  
• Freedom of speech and expression
  
• Declared British rule led to poverty and famines: increase in the land revenue had impoverished peasants and zamindars, and exports of grains to Europe had created food shortages
  
• Reduction of revenue
  
• Cut in military expenditure
  
• More funds for irrigation
  
• Resolution on salt tax, treatment of Indians abroad & sufferings of forest dwellers
  
• Develop public awareness about unjustice of British rule
  
• Published newspapers, articles and speeches
  

Freedom is Our Birth Right

• By 1890s – question about political style of Congress
  
• Lal Bal Pal (Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai)
  
• Radical objectives
  
• Criticized moderates
  
• Emphasized self-reliance and constructive work
  
• Rely on one’s own strength
  
• Fight for swaraj
  
• Tilak - Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!
  
• Kesari - Marathi newspaper edited by Tilak, became one of the strongest critics of British rule.
  

Partition of Bengal

• In 1905 by Lord Curzon
  
• Bengal was biggest province of British India and included Bihar and Odisha
  
• Tied to British interests
  
• Rather than removing the non-Bengali areas from the province, government separated East Bengal and merged it with Assam
  
• British wanted to curtail influence of Bengali politicians and split Bengali people
  
• Both moderates and extremists opposed it
  
• Public meetings and demonstrations were made
  

Swadeshi Movement

• Strongest in Bengal (also called as Vandemataram movement in Andhra Pradesh)
  
• Opposed British rule
  
• Encouraged self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national education and Indian languages
  
• Boycott of British institutes and goods
  
• Revolutionary violence started
  

All India Muslim League

• Formed in Dacca in 1906
  
• Supported partition of Bengal
  
• Wanted separate electorates for Muslims in 1909
  
• Seats in councils were reserved for Muslims
  

Congress Split in 1907

• Moderates were opposed to boycott
  
• They felt it involved force
  
• Dominated by Moderates
  
• Later two reunited in 1915
  
• Lucknow Pact – b/w Congress and Muslim League was signed to work together for representative government
  

Growth of Mass Nationalism

• Involved peasants, tribals, students, factory workers and women
  
• WW-I: huge rise in defence expenditure which was imparted on individual income as taxes – led to price rise for common people but businessmen earned huge profits (demand for industrial goods like cloth, jute, iron rails); industries in India expanded, expansion of army (villages pressurized to supply soldiers to be sent abroad)
  
• 1917 – Revolution in Russia inspired the local workers
  

Advent of Mahatma Gandhi

• 1895 – Established Natal Congress to fight racial discrimination
  
• Arrived in India from South Africa in 1915
  
• Emerged as mass leader
  
• Had contact with various types of Indians: Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Christians; Gujaratis, Tamils and north Indians; and upper-class merchants, lawyers and workers
  
• 1^st year he travelled throughout India to understand needs
  
• Interventions in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad
  
• Came in contact with Rajendra Prasad & Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
  
• 1918 – successful mill worker strike in Ahmedabad
  

Rowlatt Act

• 1919 – satyagraha against Rowlatt Act (it curbed freedom of expression and strengthened police powers)
  
• Criticized by Gandhi and Jinnah as devilish and 6^th April as “day of humiliation and prayer” with hartals (strikes)
  
• Satyagraha sabhas were set up –against British government but was restricted to cities
  
• Jallianwala Bagh atrocities, inflicted by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (13 April), were a part of this repression
  
• Tagore renounced the knighthood (honor granted by British Crown for exceptional achievement)
  
• Hindus and Muslims were united against the fight
  

Khilafat Agitation

• 1920 – British imposed treaty on Turkish Sultan or Khalifa
  
• Indian Muslims were keen that the Khalifa be allowed to retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire
  
• Led by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali - wished to initiate a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement
  
• Was supported by Gandhiji
  
• Congress to campaign against Jallianwala massacre, Khilafat wrongs and demand swaraj
  

Non-Cooperation Movement

• Gained momentum in 1921-22
  
• Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up their law practices
  
• British titles were surrendered
  
• Legislatures were boycotted
  
• Public bonfire of foreign cloth (import reduced drastically)
  
• In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised nonviolent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British.
  
• In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed
  
• In Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged a number of “forest satyagrahas”, sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing fee.
  
• Sindh, Muslim traders enthusiastic about Khilafat & same was in Bengal
  
• Punjab - Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants (functionaries of Sikh Gurudwaras - supported by British)
  
• Assam - tea garden labourers asked for “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”, demanded a big increase in their wages. Vaishnava song was substituted by “Gandhi Raja”
  

People’S Mahatma

• Considered messiah by some
  
• Build class unity and not class conflict
  
• Help in fight against zamindars
  
• Peasants in Pratapgarh in United Provinces (UP) managed to stop illegal eviction of tenants
  

Happenings of 1922-29

• Gandhiji called of Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 when set of people put fire to police station in Chauri Chaura – 22 policemen died
  
• Called for constructive works in rural areas
  
• Chittaranjan Das (lawyer in East Bengal) and Motilal Nehru – party should fight elections to enter councils and influence govt. policies
  
• Formation of RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) & Communist Party of India
  
• Bhagat Singh was also active during this period - It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear. Inquilab Zindabad!
  
  • Founded Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928 at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi. HSRA members assassinated Saunders, a police officer who had led a lathicharge that caused the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.
    
  • Along with his fellow nationalist B.K. Dutt, he threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929.
    
  • He was tried and executed at age of 23
    
• 1927 – Simon Commission by Lord Simon to decide India’s political future with no Indian representative – created outrage in India – “Simon Go back”
  
• 1929 – Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) under Jawaharlal Nehru and 26 Jan 1930 was observed as Independence Day
  

Dandi March

• 1930 – March to break salt law (state has monopoly over manufacture and sale of salt) as it was sinful to tax salt
  
• 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi
  
• Sarojini Naidu (1^st women president of INC) persuaded him to allow women to join the movement
  
• Participation of rich and poor, peasants and tribals
  
• Govt. tried to crus action against peaceful satyagrahis
  
• GoI Act 1935 – brought provincial autonomy
  
• 1937 – Govt. announced elections to provincial legislatures (Congress govt. was formed in 7 of 11 provinces)
  
• In 1939, WW-II broke out – Congress leaders were ready to support British against Hitler but wanted independence which was refused by British
  
• Veer Lakhan Nayak (a legendary tribal leader who defied the British) was hanged.
  
• Baji Mohammed, President of the Nabrangpur Congress in Orissa mobilized 20,000 people – participated in WW-II and Quit India Movement
  
• Women in Freedom Struggle - Ambabai of Karnataka had been married at age 12. Widowed at 16, she picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops in Udipi. She was arrested, served a sentence and was rearrested. Between prison terms she made speeches, taught spinning, and organized prabhat pheris. Ambabai regarded these as the happiest days of her life because they gave it a new purpose and commitment.
  
• In 1941 – Subhash Chnadra Bose founded INA (Indian National Army) – he left secretly from Calcutta to Singapore via Germany to raise fund for Azad Hind Fauj. In 1944, it entered India through Imphal and Kohima but campaign failed
  

Quit India Movement & Onwards

• In August 1942
  
• New movement in middle of WW-II
  
• People moved with “Do or Die” but non-violently
  
• Many leaders were jailed
  
• By end of 1943, around 90,000 were arrested and 1,000 killed in firing
  
• Muslim league was demanding separate state in NW and East India
  
• Brought some tension b/w Hindus and Muslims
  
• Provincial elections of 1937 – Muslims as minority
  
• Talk b/w Muslims and League failed as League saw itself as spokesperson of India Muslims but Congress had a huge support from Muslims
  
• Elections to provinces held again in 1946 – Congress performed in general Constituencies but League succeeded in Muslim seats
  
• In March 1946 the British cabinet sent 3-member mission to Delhi to examine this demand and to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India – India must be united and must be a confederation with autonomy of Muslim majority areas (but could not get Muslim League to agree on specific details of proposal) – partition became inevitable now
  
• After failure of Cabinet Misison – Muslim League decided for mass agitation to win Pakistan demand
  
• 16 August 1946 – announced as “Direct Action Day” – riots in Calcutta and by March 1947 to major parts of India
  
• Joy of independence came with mixed pain and violence of Partition
  
• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Badshah Khan) – Pashtun leader from NWFP & founder of Khudai Khidmatgars (non-violent movement amongst Pathans) – opposed partition & criticized Congress for agreeing for 1947 division
  
• Maulana Azad (born in Mecca) – Bengali father and Arab mother – scholar of Islam -exponent of the notion of wahadat-i-deen, the essential oneness of all religions – Hindu Muslim unity and opposed Jinnah’s two-nation theory
  
• C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) – member of Interim Govt. in 1946 & as free India’s first Indian Governor General – Salt Satyagarha in south
  
• Sardar Patel – Born in Karamsad, Gujarat – from peasant-proprietor family – freedom movement and president of INC in 1931
  
• Mohammad Ali Jinnah – Promoter of Hindu-Muslim unity till 1920 – main role in Lucknow Pact but recognized Muslim league after 1934 & major spokesperson for demand for Pakistan
  
• Jawaharlal Nehru - leading architect of the national movement and of free India’s economy and polity.
  

Nationalism in Africa

• Colonial rule in Africa was dictatorial
  
• Only “Chiefs” were allowed to rule on behalf of the foreign powers
  
• Laws affecting Africans were created in all-white legislatures
  
• Africans had no decision-making powers or representation, not until after WW-II at least.
  
• 1957 – Ghana (Gold Coast) was 1^st Sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence – movement led by Kwame Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party
  

 NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 12: India After Independence

Independence on 15^th Aug 1947 with Challenges

• 8 million refugees from Pakistan
  
• 500 princely states ruled by maharajas or nawabs – address them to join new nation
  
• In 1947 – population at 345 million with division b/w high caste and low caste, majority Hindus and Indians with other faiths
  
• Development was another issue to be addressed – monsoon dependent farm economy; cities with crowded slums and poverty
  
• On 30 January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony
  

Constitution

• B/w Dec. 1946 & Nov. 1949 – 300 Indians in series of meetings
  
• Constitution framed on 26 Jan 1950
  
• Adoption of Universal Adult Franchise – All Indians above 21 years would vote in elections (In UK & USA this was in stages – 1^st to men of property, then to educated class and finally to working class after lot of struggle & women as well)
  
• Equality before law to all citizens – all religions – Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis, Jains with same opportunity and jobs
  
• Special privilege to poorest and most disadvantaged – abolished untouchability (Hindu temples were now open to former untouchables) – reservation of seats in legislature and jobs
  
• Reservation for STs or Adivasis
  
• Powers of central govt. versus state govt. were discussed – provinces with greater autonomy and freedom
  
• 3 lists – Union (tax, defence, foreign affairs), State (health) & Concurrent (education, forest & agriculture)
  
• Hindi would be the “official language” of India, English would be used in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another [T.T. Krishnamachari conveyed “a warning on behalf of people of the South”, some of whom threatened to separate from India if Hindi was imposed on them]
  
• B.R. Ambedkar – father of Indian Constitution – Chairman of Drafting Committee under whom document was finalized – political democracy along with economic and social democracy
  

Formation of States

• In 1920, INC promised after independence each major linguistic group will have its own province
  
• Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation of linguistic states – nation must be united to check disruptionist tendencies
  
• Strongest Protest form Telugu speaking (Madras presidency) – Nehru was met with black flags in 1952 and demand “We want Andhra” - Potti Sriramulu was Gandhian leader who died fasting for a separate state for Telugu speakers – after his death protest intensified & 1^st Oct 1953 – new state of Andhra in name of Andhra Pradesh
  
• 1956 – States Reorganization Commission was set up - redrawing of district and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers
  

Map of Linguistic States

Map of Linguistic States

• 1960 – bilingual state of Bombay was divided into Marathi & Gujarati
  
• 1966 – Punjab divided into Punjab (Sikhs) and Haryana (Haryanvis or Hindi)
  

Map of Indian States 1 November 1956

Map of indian states 1 november 1956

Map of Indian States in 1975

Map of Indian States In 1975

Planning for Development

• Modern technical and industrial base
  
• 1950 – Planning Commission was established to execute policies for economic development
  
• Both state & private sector – to increase productivity and create jobs
  
• 1956 – 2^nd Five Year Plan formulated – focus on iron and steel & heavy industry (Bhilai steel plant with USSR in 1959)
  
• Mira Behn in 1949 – with science will come desolation, we must study nature’s balance
  

Foreign Policy

• UN formed in 1945 was in infancy
  
• The 1950s and 1960s saw emergence of the Cold War, that is, power rivalries and ideological conflicts between the USA and the USSR, with both countries creating military alliances
  
• Nehru developed India’s foreign policy – Non-Alignment
  
• NAM – not to join any major alliance and remain isolate or neutral – India played major role in mediating b/w Soviet & American alliances
  
• Member of NAM- Egypt, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Ghana and India – many other countries joined by 1970s
  
• Krishna Menon led the Indian delegation to the UN between 1952 and 1962 and argued for a policy of non-alignment
  
• Bandung, Indonesia in 1955: 29 newly independent states participated in this famous conference to discuss how Afro-Asian nations could continue to oppose colonialism and Western domination.
  

Situation as of Now

• Free press
  
• Independent judiciary
  
• Different languages
  
• Check violence against Dalits
  
• Check discrimination
  
• Clashes b/w religious groups to be checked
  
• Bridge gap b/w rich and poor (Dharavi – amongst world’s biggest slum)
  

Sri Lanka

• 1956 – Sri Lanka introduced Act recognizing Sinhala as official language
  
• For several decades now, a civil war has raged in Sri Lanka, whose roots lie in the imposition of the Sinhala language on the Tamil-speaking minority
  
• Had Hindi been imposed on South India, in the way that Urdu was imposed on East Pakistan or Sinhala on northern Sri Lanka, India too might have seen civil war and fragmentation
  

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